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Lecture 20
Wind Energy
π 2
Ex. 6.11 Annual Energy from a
Wind Turbine
• The rotor diameter is 48 m and the total efficiency is 30%, so the average power
from the wind turbine is
π
0.3 ⋅ (delivered ) ⋅ 4 ⋅ ( 48) = 165303 W
2
Pavgthe=energy
• Then, 304.5 inW/m 2
a year is
• We know that wind slows down as it passes through the blades. Recall
the power extracted by the blades:
1
bthe blades( reducesdthe
= − )
P m& v 2
v 2
(6.18)
• Extracting power with 2 available power to
downwind machines
• What is a sufficient distance between wind turbines so that windspeed has
recovered enough before it reaches the next turbine?
Wind Farms
Figure 6.28
Wind Farms
Ballpark
figure for
GE 1.5 MW
in Midwest
is one per
80 acres
3 D to 5D
Figure 6.29
Optimum spacing is
estimated to be 3-5 rotor
diameters between 5 D to 9D
4D
7D
Note that the 4D and the 7D are switched on the figure in the book.
Ex. 6.12 – Energy Potential for a
Windfarm
4D
7D
2 4
August April
Source: www.uwig.org/XcelMNDOCwindcharacterization.pdf
How Rotor Blades Extract Energy
from the Wind
Airfoil – could be the wing of an
airplane or the blade of a wind
turbine
• Increasing angle of
attack increases lift,
but it also increases
drag
Figure 6.31 (a)
Figure 6.32
Idealized Power Curve
• Consider a 0.9 kW wind turbine with a 2.13m blade installed at a hub height
where the average wind speed is 6.7 m/s.
• Assume the turbine costs $1,600 and the installation/other capital costs add an
additional $900
• The $2,500 total capital is financed with a 15-year, 7% load.
• Annual O&M costs are $100
• The capital recovery factor (i=0.07, n =15) is 0.1087
• Total annual payments are thus $(2500*0.1087+100)
= $374.49/yr
Example: Small Wind Turbine, cont.
• To estimate the energy delivered by the turbine we’ll use the CF approach from
(6.65)
PR 0.9
CF = 0.087V − 2 = (0.087)(6.7) − 2
= 0.385
D 2.13
• Total energy supplied by turbine would be about
(0.9)kW⋅ (8760)hr/yr ⋅ 0.385 = 3035 kWh/yr
• Average cost per kWh is then 374.5/3035 = 0.123 $/kWh
• This value is close to current rates, and also assumes the wind turbine only lasts
for 15 years.
• Note, a 6.7 m/sec average wind is class 3 (much of Illinois at 50m)
Current Prices for Small Wind
Most
Illinois
sites are
< 12 mph
at 65’
Source: www.capewind.org
Environmental Aspects of Wind
Energy, Human Well-Being
• Wind turbines often enhance the well-being of many people, but some living
nearby may be affected by noise and shadow flicker
• Noise comes from 1) the gearbox/generator and 2) the aerodynamic interaction of
the blades with the wind
• Noise impact is usually moderate (50-60 dB) close (40m), and lower further away
(35-45 dB) at 300m
– However wind turbine frequencies also need to be considered, with both a “hum” frequency
above 100 Hz, and some inaudible or barely audible low frequencies (20 Hz or less)
• Shadow flicker is more of an issue in high latitude countries since a lower sun
casts longer shadows
Questions Landowners Should
Consider Before Signing Up
• How much do I get and how much land will be tied up and for how
long (usually about $3000/yr per turbine)
– Is it fixed or based on revenue?
• What land rights are given up; what can I still do?
• Who has what liability insurance?
• What rights is the developer able to transfer without my consent?
• What are my and the developer’s termination rights?
• If the agreement is terminated, what happens to the wind energy
structures and related facilities (they take a lot of concrete!)
Wind Turbines and Property Taxes
in Illinois
• Illinois taxes property (land/buildings) at a rate equal to 1/3 its
“fair cash value.”
– Personal property is not taxed (e.g., they tax your house but not what
you have in your house).
• Beginning in 2008 Illinois assigns a fair cash value to wind
turbines based at a rate of $360,000 per MW*an inflation value
(set to 1.0 in 2008) – a depreciation value.
• Property tax rates in Champaign county are around $7 to $8 /
$100. At 8% the owner of 1.5 MW wind turbine would need to
pay $9600 per year, which is about $2.4 per MWh (assuming a
30% capacity factor)
Power Grid Integration of Wind
Power
• Currently wind power represents a minority of the generation in
power system interconnects, so its impact of grid operations is
small
• But as wind power grows, in the not too distant future it will
have a much larger, and perhaps dominant impact of grid
operations
• Wind power has impacts on power system operations ranging
from that of transient stability (seconds) out to steady-state
(power flow)
– Voltage and frequency impacts are key concerns
Wind Power, Reserves and
Regulation
• A key constraint associated with power system operations is pretty
much instantaneously the total power system generation must match
the total load plus losses
– Excessive generation increases the system frequency, while excessive load
decreases the system frequency
• Generation shortfalls can suddenly occur because of the loss of a
generator; utilities plan for this occurrence by maintaining sufficient
reserves (generation that is on-line but not fully used) to account for
the loss of the largest single generator in a region (e.g., a state)
Wind Power, Reserves and
Regulation, cont.
Eastern Interconnect Frequency Response for
Loss of 2600 MW;
Wind Power, Reserves and
Regulation, cont.
• A fundamental issue associated with “free fuel” systems like wind
is that operating with a reserve margin requires leaving free energy
“on the table.”
– A similar issue has existed with nuclear energy, with the fossil fueled units
usually providing the reserve margin
• Because wind turbine output can vary with the cube of the wind
speed, under certain conditions a modest drop in the wind speed
over a region could result in a major loss of generation
– Lack of other fossil-fuel reserves could exacerbate the situation
Wind Power and the Power Flow
• The most common power system analysis tool is the power flow
(also known sometimes as the load flow)
– power flow determines how the power flows in a network
– also used to determine all bus voltages and all currents
– because of constant power models, power flow is a nonlinear analysis
technique
– power flow is a steady-state analysis tool
– it can be used as a tool for planning the location of new generation,
including wind
Five Bus Power Flow Example
T2
800 MVA
1 T1 5 4 345/15 kV 3 520 MVA
Line 3
345
50kV
mi
400 MVA 800 MVA
15 kV 15 kV
400 MVA 345 kV 40 Mvar 80 MW
Line 2
Line 1
345 kV
15/345 kV 100 mi 200 mi
2
280 Mvar 800 MW
Single-line diagram
37 Bus Power Flow Example
Metropolis Light and Power Electric Design Case 2
A
SLA CK345
MVA
A
MVA
22 0 MW
1.03 pu RA Y3 45
slack
52 Mvar
System Losses: 10.70 MW A A A
1.00 pu 1.03 pu
13 Mvar MVA
1 5.9 Mvar 18 MW
A 1.02 pu RA Y6 9
A 5 Mvar 3 7 MW
MVA A
1 7 MW A
MVA
PA I 69 1 3 Mvar
1.01 pu MVA 3 Mvar MVA
1.02 pu T I M69
A 1 .01 pu GROSS69 A
23 MW
MVA
MVA
FERNA 69
7 Mvar A
1.01 pu WOLEN69
A A
12 MW
MVA
HI SKY 69 3 Mvar
MVA MVA
PET E69 A
A
A
4.9 Mvar
MORO1 38 MVA
58 MW A MVA
39 MW MVA
40 Mvar 1.01 pu MVA
13 Mvar 1 .00 pu BOB138 A
12 MW HA NNA H69 28.9 Mvar DEMA R69 A A
5 Mvar 60 MW
MVA
MVA MVA
19 Mvar
1.00 pu 20 MW
1.00 pu
A
1.02 pu BOB69
12 Mvar
0.99 pu 14.2 Mvar UI UC6 9 MVA
1.00 pu
12.8 Mvar 12 4 MW 56 MW
KYLE69 A A
45 Mvar
A
MVA MVA 13 Mvar LYNN138
16 MW
MVA
A -14 Mvar
2 5 MW A A
MVA 14 MW
3 6 Mvar BLT 13 8
A MA NDA 69
MVA
1.00 pu MVA 4 Mvar
A
0.99 pu A A
2 5 Mvar A
1.00 pu MVA
MVA
A
A
36 MW A
1.01 pu
60 MW MVA 10 Mvar 7.3 Mvar MVA
A
A
MVA
12 Mvar
1 .00 pu 1.00 pu PA TT EN69 MVA
0.0 Mvar A
MVA
4 5 MW 14 MW ROGER69
MVA
1.01 pu WEBER69 0 Mvar
LA UF69 2 Mvar
1.02 pu
23 MW
22 MW 10 MW
A A
6 Mvar 14 MW A
20 MW 15 Mvar 5 Mvar
MVA MVA 3 Mvar MVA
28 Mvar
1.02 pu J O1 38 J O345
LA UF138 1.02 pu SA VOY69 38 MW
1.0 0 pu
3 Mvar
1 .01 pu BUCKY13 8 A
A MVA A
150 MW
MVA 1.0 1 pu SA VOY13 8 MVA
A A
0 Mvar
MVA MVA
150 MW
A
0 Mvar
MVA
1 .03 pu
1.02 pu A
MVA
Good Power System Operation
MVA
227 MW
1.03 pu RA Y345
slack
43 Mvar
1.01 pu 1.03 pu
13 Mvar MVA
16.0 Mvar 18 MW
A 1.02 pu RA Y69
A 5 Mvar 37 MW
MVA
A
17 MW A
MVA
PA I 69 13 Mvar
1.01 pu MVA 3 Mvar MVA
1.02 pu TI M69
A 1.01 pu GROSS69 A
23 MW
MVA
MVA
FERNA 69
7 Mvar A
1.01 pu WOLEN69
A A
12 MW
MVA
HI SKY69 3 Mvar
MVA MVA
PET E69 A
A
4.9 Mvar
MORO138 58 MW A MVA
39 MW MVA
40 Mvar 1.01 pu MVA
13 Mvar 1.00 pu BOB138 A
12 MW HA NNAH69 28.9 Mvar DEMA R69 A A
5 Mvar 60 MW
MVA
MVA MVA
19 Mvar
1.00 pu 20 MW
1.00 pu
A
1.02 pu BOB69
12 Mvar
0.90 pu 11.6 Mvar UI UC69 MVA
1.00 pu
12.8 Mvar 124 MW 56 MW
KYLE69 A A
45 Mvar
A
MVA MVA 13 Mvar LYNN138
16 MW
MVA
A -14 Mvar
25 MW A A
MVA 14 MW
36 Mvar BLT138
AMA NDA69
MVA
1.00 pu MVA 4 Mvar
A 0.90 pu A A
110% 25 MW MVA
MVA SHI MKO69 1.02 pu
MVA A
HOMER69 10 Mvar 1.01 pu A
7.3 Mvar
BLT69 MVA
A
1.01 pu MVA
A
15 MW
135%
MVA
20 MW
HA LE69 55 MW 5 Mvar
3 Mvar MVA
A
32 Mvar A
0.94 pu MVA
MVA
A
36 MW A
1.01 pu
A
60 MW MVA 10 Mvar 7.2 Mvar MVA
A
A
MVA
12 Mvar
1.00 pu 1.00 pu PA T TEN69 MVA
0.0 Mvar A
MVA
45 MW 14 MW ROGER69
MVA
1.00 pu WEBER69 0 Mvar
LA UF69 2 Mvar
1.01 pu
23 MW
A 22 MW 10 MW
A
6 Mvar 14 MW A
20 MW
MVA
80% 15 Mvar 5 Mvar
3 Mvar MVA
40 Mvar MVA
1.02 pu J O138 J O345
LA UF138 1.01 pu SAVOY69 38 MW
0.99 pu
9 Mvar
1.00 pu BUCKY138 A
A MVA A
150 MW
MVA 1.01 pu SAVOY138 MVA
A A
4 Mvar
MVA MVA
150 MW
A
4 Mvar
MVA
1.03 pu
1.02 pu A
MVA
Contingency
analysis provides
an automatic
way of looking
at all the
statistically
likely
contingencies. In
this example the
contingency set
Is all the single
line/transformer
outages
Generation Changes and
The Slack Bus
• The power flow is a steady-state analysis tool, so the
assumption is total load plus losses is always equal to
total generation
• Generation mismatch is made up at the slack bus
• When doing generation change power flow studies one
always needs to be cognizant of where the generation is
being made up
• Common options include system slack, distributed across
multiple generators by participation factors or by economics
Generation Change Example 1
A
SLA CK34 5
MVA
A
MVA
1 62 MW
0 .00 pu RA Y34 5
slack
3 5 Mvar
A A A
0 MW 0.0 0 pu GROSS69 A
A
MVA
0 Mvar
A
MVA
FERNA 6 9
MVA 0.0 0 pu WOLEN6 9
A 0 MW
MORO1 38 MVA
HI SKY69 0 Mvar
MVA
A
A
-0.1 Mvar
0 MW A MVA
MVA
0 Mvar 0 MW -0.01 pu
MVA
0 Mvar A
-0.03 pu BOB1 38
PETE6 9 A
MVA DEMA R6 9 A A
0.0 0 pu MVA
HA NNA H6 9 0 MW
MVA MVA
0 MW 0 Mvar
0 MW A
0 Mvar 0.0 0 pu BOB69
0 Mvar
-0.2 Mvar MVA
UI UC69 0.0 0 pu
-0.1 Mvar
0 .00 pu A -157 MW 0 MW
-0 .1 Mvar
-45 Mvar
A
MVA 0 Mvar LYNN13 8
A
0 MW
MVA
A 0 Mvar
MVA
A
MVA 0 MW A
0 MW
-0.0 02 pu BLT1 38
0 Mvar MVA -0.0 3 pu MVA 0 Mvar
0.00 pu A MA NDA 69 A
A
A
MVA SHI MKO69 0.0 0 pu
HOMER69 0 MW A
MVA
MVA
0.0 Mvar
0 Mvar 0.0 0 pu A
BLT 69 MVA
A -0.0 1 pu MVA
0 MW A
MVA
0 MW
0 Mvar HA LE6 9 A 0 MW 0 Mvar
MVA A
0 .00 pu 51 Mvar
MVA
MVA
A
A
0 MW A
0.0 0 pu
0 MW MVA 0 Mvar 0 .0 Mvar MVA A
A
MVA
0 Mvar
0 .00 pu 0 .00 pu PA TTEN69 MVA
0.0 Mvar A
MVA
0 MW 0 MW ROGER69
MVA
0.0 0 pu WEBER69 0 Mvar
LA UF69 0 Mvar
0 .00 pu
0 MW
0 MW 0 MW
A A
0 Mvar 0 MW A
0 MW 0 Mvar 0 Mvar
0 Mvar
4 Mvar MVA MVA MVA
A MVA A
0 MW
MVA 0 .00 pu SA VOY138 MVA
A A
2 Mvar
MVA MVA
0 MW
A
2 Mvar
MVA
0.00 pu
0 .00 pu A
MVA
MVA
0 MW
0 .00 pu RA Y34 5
slack
3 7 Mvar
A A A
0 MW 0.0 0 pu GROSS69 A
A
MVA
0 Mvar
A
MVA
FERNA 6 9
MVA 0.0 0 pu WOLEN6 9
A 0 MW
MORO1 38 MVA
HI SKY69 0 Mvar
MVA
A
A
0 .0 Mvar
0 MW A MVA
MVA
0 Mvar 0 MW 0.00 pu
MVA
0 Mvar A
-0.03 pu BOB1 38
PETE6 9 A
MVA DEMA R6 9 A A
0.0 0 pu MVA
HA NNA H6 9 0 MW
MVA MVA
0 MW 0 Mvar
0 MW A
0 Mvar 0.0 0 pu BOB69
0 Mvar
-0.2 Mvar MVA
UI UC69 0.0 0 pu
-0.1 Mvar
0 .00 pu A -157 MW 0 MW
-0 .1 Mvar
-45 Mvar
A
MVA 0 Mvar LYNN13 8
A
0 MW
MVA
A 0 Mvar
MVA
A
MVA 0 MW A
0 MW
-0.0 03 pu BLT1 38
0 Mvar MVA -0.0 3 pu MVA 0 Mvar
0.00 pu A MA NDA 69 A
A
A
MVA SHI MKO69 0.0 0 pu
HOMER69 0 MW A
MVA
MVA
-0 .1 Mvar
0 Mvar -0 .01 pu A
BLT 69 MVA
A -0.0 1 pu MVA
0 MW A
MVA
0 MW
0 Mvar HA LE6 9 A 19 MW 0 Mvar
MVA A
0 .00 pu 51 Mvar
MVA
MVA
A
A
0 MW A
0.0 0 pu
0 MW MVA 0 Mvar 0 .0 Mvar MVA A
A
MVA
0 Mvar
0 .00 pu 0 .00 pu PA TTEN69 MVA
0.0 Mvar A
MVA
0 MW 0 MW ROGER69
MVA
0.0 0 pu WEBER69 0 Mvar
LA UF69 0 Mvar
0 .00 pu
0 MW
0 MW 0 MW
A A
0 Mvar 0 MW A
99 MW 0 Mvar 0 Mvar
0 Mvar
-20 Mvar MVA MVA MVA
A MVA A
0 MW
MVA 0 .00 pu SA VOY138 MVA
A A
0 Mvar
MVA MVA
0 MW
A
0 Mvar
MVA
0.00 pu
0 .00 pu A
MVA
MVA
1.02 pu RAY345
slack
1.00 pu 1.02 pu
MVA
A
A 1.02 pu RAY69
A A
MVA
MVA
PAI69
1.01 pu MVA
1.02 pu TIM69 MVA
A 1.01 pu GROSS69 A
MVA MVA
FERNA69
A
1.00 pu
A
12 MW
A MVA
HISKY69 3 Mvar
MVA MVA
PETE69
A A
MVA MVA
1.00 pu
Wind69 1.00 pu 20 MW A
1.01 pu BOB69
12 Mvar
1.00 pu UIUC69 MVA
1.00 pu
0 MW 56 MW
50 MW A
MVA
A
MVA
0 Mvar
13 Mvar
A
A A
MVA
BLT138
AMAN DA69
-2 Mvar
MVA
0.99 pu MVA
A
1.00 pu A A
MVA MVA
MVA SHIMKO69
HOMER69 1.00 pu A
BLT69
A
1.01 pu MVA
A
MVA
MVA HALE69 A
A
1.01 pu MVA
MVA
A
A A
1.01 pu
MVA MVA
A
MVA
1.00 pu 1.00 pu PATTEN69 MVA
A
14 MW ROGER69
MVA
1.01 pu WEBER69
LAUF69 2 Mvar
1.02 pu
A A A