THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

How to View Light

As a Particle
As a Ray
As a Wave
Theories on nature of light:
Light as a particle vs. Light as a wave
Only corpuscular theory
of light prevalent until
1660
Francesco Maria
Grimaldi (Bologna)
described diffraction in
1660
Light as a particle
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Embraces corpuscular theory of
light because of inability to explain
rectilinear propagation in terms of
waves
Demonstrates that white light is
mixture of a range of independent
colors
Different colors excite ether into
characteristic vibrations---sensation
of red corresponds to longer ether
vibration
Light as a wave
Christian Huygens (1629-1695)
Huygens principle (Traite de la
Lumire, 1678):
Every point on a primary wavefront
serves as the source of secondary
spherical wavelets, such that the
primary wavefront at some later
time is the envelope of these
wavelets. Wavelets advance with
speed and frequency of primary
wave at each point in space

http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/waves/propagation/huygens1.html
Light as a wave
Thomas Young (1773-
1829)
1801-1803: double slit
experiment, showing
interference by light
from a single source
passing though two thin
closely spaced slits
projected on a screen
far away from the slits
http://vsg.quasihome.com/interfer.htm
Light as a wave
Augustine Fresnel (1788-1827)
1818: Developed mathematical
wave theory combining
concepts from Huygens wave
propagation and wave
interference to describe
diffraction effects from slits
and small apertures
Electromagnetic wave nature of light
Michael Faraday (1791-1865)
1845: demonstrated
electromagnetic nature of
light by showing that you can
change the polarization
direction of light using a
strong magnetic field
Electromagnetic theory
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-
1879)
1873: Theory for
electromagnetic wave
propagation
Light is an electromagnetic
disturbance in the form of
waves propagated through the
ether
Quantum mechanics
1900: Max Planck postulates that
oscillating electric system imparts its
energy to the EM field in quanta
1905: Einstein-photoelectric effect
Light consists of individual energy quanta,
photons, that interact with electrons like
particle
1900-1930 it becomes obvious that concepts of
wave and particle must merge in
submicroscopic domain
Photons, protons, electrons, neutrons have
both particle and wave manifestations
Particle with momentum p has associated
wavelength given by p=h/
QM treats the manner in which light is
absorbed and emitted by atoms


Max Planck
Niels Bohr
Louis de Broglie Schrdinger
Heisenberg
Reflection and Refraction
v
ph
= c/n
1
v
ph
= c/n
2
u
i
u
r
u
t
normal
r i
u u =
( )
( )
1
2
sin
sin
n
n
t
i
=
u
u
All of Geometrical optics boils down to
Law of Reflection:
Snells Law:
The Snells Laws
Willebrordus Snellius
Fundamental Rules for
Reflection and Refraction
in the limit of Ray Optics
1. Huygenss Principle
2. Fermats Principle
3. Electromagnetic Wave Boundary
Conditions
Huygens Principle
Huygen assumed that light is
a form of wave motion rather
than a stream of particles
Huygens Principle is a
geometric construction for
determining the position of a
new wave at some point
based on the knowledge of
the wave front that preceded
it
Christian Huygens
(1629-1695)
Huygens Principle, cont.
All points on a given wave front are taken
as point sources for the production of
spherical secondary waves, called wavelets,
which propagate in the forward direction
with speeds characteristic of waves in that
medium
After some time has elapsed, the new position
of the wave front is the surface tangent to the
wavelets
Huygens Construction for a Plane
Wave
At t = 0, the wave front is
indicated by the plane AA
The points are representative
sources for the wavelets
After the wavelets have
moved a distance ct, a new
plane BB can be drawn,
which is the tangent to the
wavefronts
Huygens Construction for a
Spherical Wave
The points are
representative sources
for the wavelets
The new wavefront is
tangent at each point
to the wavelet
Huygens Principle and the Law of
Reflection
The Law of
Reflection can be
derived from
Huygens Principle
AA is a wave front of
incident light
The reflected wave
front is CD

Reflection According
to Huygens
Side-Side-Side
AAC ADC

1
=
1

Incoming ray Outgoing ray
Huygens Principle and the Law of
Reflection, cont.
Triangle ADC is
congruent to triangle
AAC

1
=
1

This is the Snells Law
of Reflection
Huygens Principle and the Law of
Refraction
Every point on a wave
front can be considered to
be a source of secondary
waves. The figure explains
the refraction at an
interface between media
with different optical
densities.

Air
Huygenss Principle and the Law of
Refraction, cont.
Ray 1 strikes the surface and at a
time interval t later, ray 2 strikes
the surface
During this time interval, the wave
at A sends out a wavelet, centered
at A, toward D
The wave at B sends out a wavelet,
centered at B, toward C
Huygenss Principle and the Law of
Refraction, cont.
The two wavelets travel in different media,
therefore their radii are different
From triangles ABC and ADC, we find
Huygenss Principle and the Law of
Refraction, final
The preceding equation can be simplified to






This is Snells law of refraction
26
Pierre de Fermats principle
1657 Fermat (1601-1665)
proposed a Principle of Least
Time encompassing both
reflection and refraction
The actual path between
two points taken by a beam
of light is the one that is
traversed in the least time

Fermats Principle
The path a beam of light takes between two points is the one which is
traversed in the least time.
A B
Isotropic medium: constant
velocity.
Minimum time = minimum path
length.

28
Optical path length
n
1
n
4
n
2
n
5
n
m
n
3
S
P
Optical Path Length (OPL)
When n constant, OPL = n geometric length.
n
vac

=
vac

L L
n > 1 n = 1
For n = 1.5,
OPL is
50% larger
than L
}
=
P
S
dx x n OPL ) (
S
P
30
Fermats principle
t = OPL/c
Light, in going from
point S to P, traverses
the route having the
smallest optical path
length
c
OPL
t =
31
Optical path length
Transit time from S to P

=
=
m
i
i i
s n
c
t
1
1

=
=
m
i
i i
s n OPL
1
}
=
P
S
ds s n OPL ) (
}
=
P
S
ds
v
c
OPL
Same for all rays
32
n
1
n
2
Fermats principle
n
1
< n
2
A
O
B

r
x
a
h
b
What geometry gives the
shortest time between
the points A and B?
n
1
n
2
u
i
u
t
normal
A
B
O
Method 1
a
b
c
t i
v
OB
v
AO
t + =
x
( )
t i
v
x c b
v
x a
t
2
2 2 2
+
+
+
=
( )
2
2
2 2
x c b v
x c
x a v
x
dx
dt
t
i
+

+
=
( ) ( )
0
sin sin
= =
t
t
i
i
v v dx
dt u u
( ) ( )
t t i i
n n u u sin sin =
Method 2
Minimizing the time (optical path length)
between points Q and Q yields Snells
Law:
2
2 / 1 2 2
1
2 / 1 2 2
2 1
) ' ( ) ) ( (
'
v
x h
v
x p h
t
V
AQ
v
QA
t
+
+
+
=
+ =
' sin ' sin
'
'
) ' (
'
] ) ( [
,
0 2
) ' (
2 / '
) 2 2 (
) ( [
2 /
:
) ' ( ' ] ) ( [
:
) ' ( '
) ) ( (
'
2 / 1 2 2 2 / 1 2 2
2 / 1 2 2 2 / 1 2
2 / 1 2 2 2 / 1 2 2
2 / 1 2 2
2 / 1 2 2
| | n n
and
d
x
n
d
x p
n
or
x h
x
n
x p h
x p
n
thus
x
x h
n
x p
x p h
n
dx
d
ating dif f erenti
x h n x p h n
ng substituti
x h d
x p h d
d n nd OPL
=
=

+
=
+

=
+
+ +
+
=
A
+ + + = A
+ =
+ =
+ = A =
Fermats Principle and Reflection
A light ray traveling from one fixed point to another will follow
a path such that the time required is an extreme point either a
maximum or a minimum.
Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwells Equations for time varying
electric and magnetic fields in free space
0
c

= - V E
t
B
E
c
c
= V
0 = - V B
t
E
I B
c
c
+ = V
0 0 0
c
(where is the charge density)
Simple interpretation
Divergence of electric field is a function
of charge density
A closed loop of E field lines will exist when
the magnetic field varies with time
Divergence of magnetic field =0
(closed loops)
A closed loop of B field lines will exist in
The presence of a current and/or
time varying electric field
Description of Light
Wave Equation (derived from Maxwells equations)
Any function that satisfies this eqn is a wave
It describes light propagation in free space and in time
operator Laplacian
field induction magnetic
field electric E
light of speed c
where
t c
t
E
c
E
V

c
c
= V
c
c
= V
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
,
1
1
B
B
B

(see calculus review handout)

Its general solutions (plane wave) :


( ) e + -
)
`

=
)
`

t r k i
e
B
E
B
E

0
0
TE TM
Electromagnetic Wave Boundary Conditions
(E fields)
Light at a Plane Dielectric Interface
TE
TM
( ) t r k j j
oi inc
i i
e e E
e |
=

E
( ) t r k j j
or ref
r r r
e e E

=

E
( ) t r k j j
ot trans
t t t
e e E

=

E
k
i

k
r

k
t

k
i

k
r

k
t

n
Assume:
A plane wave is incident:
A plane wave is reflected:
A plane wave is transmitted:
What are the relative amplitudes, wave numbers, frequencies, and phases?
To remain constant at a certain place:
t r i
e e e = =
r k r k r k
t r i

= =
To remain constant at a certain time:
k
i
, k
r
, k
t
are all co-planar
incident, reflected, and refracted all at same
frequency.
( ) ( ) ( ) t r k t r k t r k
t t r r i i
= =

Relationship between fields at the interface should not depend on position or

time:
vk = e ' ' k v = e
( ) t kx e sin
A boundary at one point in space for all time:
The left side shakes the right at frequency e, which creates a wave with
a different velocity (different medium) and therefore different
wavelength.
k
i
k
r
n
O
r
(could be in any direction) k
i
dot r makes this happen
k
r
dot r makes this happen
( ) 0 = r k k
r i


k
i
- k
r
k
i
-k
r
dot r makes a plane,
but it must be the
surface since the
boundary condition is
for r at the surface.
But this can only be true
if k
r
is also in the plane
of incidence!
k
i

k
r

k
t

r
( ) ( )
r r i i
r k r k u u
t t
=
2 2
cos cos
Same medium, same velocity, same wavelength, same wavenumber, so:
( ) ( )
t t i i
r k r k u u
t t
=
2 2
cos cos
u
i
u
r
r i
u u =
t t i i
n n u u sin sin =
u
t
( ) ( )
t
o
t
i
o
i
n n
u

t
u

t
sin
2
sin
2
=
Law of Reflection
Snells Law
} }

c
c
=
S C
a d
t
l d


B E
} }

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
S C
a d
t t
l d


P E B
0 0 0
c
0
tangential
inside
tangential
outside
= l E l E
tangential
inside
tangential
outside
E E =
0
tangential
inside
tangential
outside
= l B l B
tangential
inside
tangential
outside
B B =
Tangential components of both E and B are continuous at the boundary.
Therefore, for all points on the boundary at all times:
( ) ( ) ( ) t r k j j
ot
t r k j j
or
t r k j j
oi
t t t r r r i i i
e e E e e E e e E

= +

Now for the relative amplitudes: reflection and transmission
TE
TM
t r i
E E E = +
t t r r i i
B B B u u u cos cos cos =
t r i
B B B = +
t t r r i i
E E E u u u cos cos cos = +
( )B vB E
n
c
= =
B
i
B
r
E E
B
t
TE
TM
t r i
E E E = +
t t t i r i i i i
E n E n E n u u u cos cos cos =
t t r i i i
E n E n E n = +
t t i r i i
E E E u u u cos cos cos = +
For reflection: eliminate E
t
, separate E
i
and E
r
, and get ratio:

TE
t n
n
i
t n
n
i
i
r
i
t
i
t
E
E
r
u u
u u
cos cos
cos cos
+

= =
TM
t i n
n
t i n
n
i
r
i
t
i
t
E
E
r
u u
u u
cos cos
cos cos
+

= =
Get all in terms of E, and recall that u
i
= u
r
:
Apply Snells law (let n = n
t
/n
i
)

TE
i i
i i
n
n
r
u u
u u
2 2
2 2
sin cos
sin cos
+

=
TM
i i
i i
n n
n n
r
u u
u u
2 2 2
2 2 2
sin cos
sin cos
+

=
Coefficient of transmission: t

i i
i
i
t
n
E
E
t
u u
u
2 2
sin cos
cos 2
+
= =
TE
i i
i
i
t
n n
n
E
E
t
u u
u
2 2 2
sin cos
cos 2
+
= =
TM
internal reflection: n = 0.667
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 20 40 60 80
r
Angle of incidence
TM
TE
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 20 40 60 80
r
Angle of incidence
TM
TE
external reflection: n = 1.5
TE/TM wave optical reflection
TE (transverse electric) polarization
Electric field parallel to substrate surface
TM (transverse magnetic) polarization
Magnetic field parallel to substrate surface

low index high index high index low index
TE
TM
TE
TM
RS
the critical angle for total reflection






If u
i
> u
cri
, then it is total reflection and no power can be
transmitted, these fields are referred as evanescent waves.





1
2
critical
1
( ) sin
i
|
u
|

| |
=
|
\ .
Brewsters angle for total transmission




For lossless, non-magnetic media, we have







Total transmission for TM polarization
2 2 2
1
2 2 1
2 2 2 2
2 1 1 2
( )
sin
i BA
| q q
u u
q | q |

= =

1
1
2
1
sin
1
BA
r
r
u
c
c

=
+
RS
Ex1 A 2 GHz TE wave is incident at 30

angle of
incidence from air on to a thick slab of nonmagnetic,
lossless dielectric with c
r
= 16. Find I
TE
and t
TE
.
RS
Ex2 A uniform plane wave is incident from air onto glass at an angle
from the normal of 30

. Determine the fraction of the incident power

that is reflected and transmitted for a) and b). Glass has refractive
index n
2
= 1.45.
a) TM polarization





b) TE polarization
Photons and The Laws of Reflection
and Refraction