WORKSHOP ON RADIATION PROTECTION

AN INTRODUCTION
TO
RADIATION PROTECTION
Rasel Nirjhon
Mawlana Bhashani Science & Technology University,
Tangail, Bangladesh

1
 1.THE ATOM
a. The emission of high-energy ionising
radiations and their interaction with matter are
the processes that occur on the microscopic
scale of atoms and their nuclei.
Therefore, a brief over view on the atomic and
nuclear structure is being presented for
recollecting the properties of ionising radiation
and hence, understanding the guiding principles
of Radiation Protection.
2
b. A typical atom has diameter~10-7 mm
and consists of a +(ve)ly charged
nucleus, with a diameter~5 X 10-12 mm,
surrounded by a cloud of –(ve)ly
charged moving electrons (e-). The
nucleus consists of two types of
particles: the +(ve)ly charged proton,
and uncharged neutron.
3
c. Proton and neutron have ~ equal
mass and are ~ 2000 times the mass of
electron.
d. Proton has 1 unit +ve charge, and
electron has 1 unit -(ve) charge
(≈ 1.602× 10-19 coulombs, the
elementary charge).
e. Some physical properties of the
atomic particles are summarised in
Table.
4
Atomic diameter ≈ 10-7 mm
Nuclear diameter ≈ 10-12 mm
So, Nuclear size is ≈ 105 times
smaller than an atom.

5
Table: Physical Properties of Atomic Particles

Particle Symbol Mass(gm) Mass(u) Charge(e)

Proton p 1.6726× 10-24 1 +1

Neutron n 1.6749× 10-24 1 0

Electron - 9.11× 10-28 0.00055 -1

= atomic mass unit=1.66× 10-24 g (1.66× 10-21 mg)

= elementary charge=1.602× 10-19 coulomb
6
f. The nucleus is extremely small and compact compared
to the electron cloud. Thus, while the electron cloud takes-
up almost the whole of the atomic volume, ≈ 99.98% of
atomic mass is concentrated in the tiny nucleus.
g. In normal states, the +ve and -ve charges within an atom
are equal and therefore, the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral. But sometimes, due to chemical or physical
processes (changes), an atom may lose one or more
electrons, or may gain (acquire) extra electrons. In such
case, the atom will have a net +(ve) or -(ve) charge and is
called cation or anion, respectively, as they are attracted
towards cathode or anode.

7
 1.1. Energy Levels in Atom
a. Electrons( in the electron cloud) in an atom are only
permitted to reside in specific atomic orbitals around the
nucleus.
b.Orbitals determine the energies of the electrons (i.e;an
electron in an outer orbital has higher energy than one in
inner orbital).
c. Energy-Level for each orbital and the max no. of
electrons permitted to reside in each orbital are governed
by the laws of Quantum Mechanics.
8
d. Electrons may move from one orbital to another only by
emitting or absorbing a quantum of electro-magnetic
radiation (a photon) with energy equal to the difference
between the energies of the two orbitals, shown
(fig:-)Emission of a photon when an electron moves from
the 2nd orbital (high energy level) to the 1st orbital (low
energy level) of a Lithium atom, and in doing so, it releases
excess energy.
(photon)

e.g., 73Li

9
Fig.
Depending on the atom, the nucleus and the energy levels
involved, the photon (emitted or absorbed) may be one of
infra-red, visible or ultra-violet light, or for heavy atom
nuclei and inner orbitals where energy levels are widely
separated, the photon may be of x-ray.
The specific energy of photons (emitted from atoms) is
evident in the sp. colour of light emitted by lasers in the
characteristic x-rays produced by X-ray machine.

10
 1.2. The Nucleus
a. It is comprised of protons & neutrons (collectively called
nucleons) which are held together by a strong, short-ranged nuclear
force( an example of a Lithium nucleus, comprising 3 protons & 4
neutrons, is shown in previous figure).
b. A nucleus (denoted by AZX), can be identified by its atomic
number, Z, and its mass number, A, where X takes symbol of an
element (e.g., H for Hydrogen, He for helium, etc.), Z is the no. of
protons and A is the total no. of nucleons in the nucleus.
However, the atomic no. is often not written with the symbol of an
element, as the proton no. is implied by the element symbol. e.g.,
1
H, 2H, 4He, 7Li, 12 C, 13 C, 13 N , 14 N, 58 Co, 60 Co, 88 Sr, 90 Sr,134 Cs, 137 Cs,
etc
11
 Nucleus Contd., …….
c. Nuclei having (i) same atomic no (Z) but different
mass no(A) are called isotopes.
(ii) Same mass no. (A), different atomic no. (Z) are
Isobars;
(iii) Same atomic no (Z) and mass no (A), but different
only in energy state of their nuclei are called isomers;
and
(iv) Same neutron nos. but different atomic no. (Z) are
called Isotones, as shown in the following Table:

12
 Nucleus Contd., …….
Table: Different Types of nuclei
Nuclei Types Examples
Same Z, but different A (Isotopes) 12
6
C, 13 6C , 14 6C ; 59
28
Ni , 60 28 Ni ;

Same A, but different Z(Isobars) 14

6
C, 14 7N; 58 26 Fe, 58 28 Ni , 58 27 Co

Same Z and A , different energy 60m

Ni, 60 28 Ni ; 99m 43 Tc; 99 43 Tc 137m 56 Ba,
28
(Isomers) 137
Ba
56

Same neutron nos.(Isotones) 13

6
C, 14 7N ;

13
 Nucleus Contd., …….

d. Only the element with Z=1 (I.e., Hydrogen) to

Z=92 (Uranium) are stable and, therefore, exists
in nature. Those with Z=93 (Nepturium) to Z=103
(Lawrencium) are unstable (i.e.radioactive) and
have been synthesized by nuclear reactions.
e. Mentionable that, many of the stable elements
have also their unstable (i,e., radioactive) isotopes.

14
 1.3. STABLE AND UNSTABLE Nuclei
a. Light nuclei have roughly equal nos. of protons and neutrons.
b. But, the heavier nuclei have increased nos. of neutrons compared
to protons. These excess neutrons provide the additional nuclear
force required to hold the nucleus together (against the repulsive
force of electrostatic +(ve) charge of the protons).
c. Nuclei having the appropriate nos. of protons (z) and neutrons
(n) such that the nucleus will hold together indefinitely are Stable.
A line of best fit, drawn by plotting N Vs P of all the stable
nuclides is called the line of stability.
d. A stable nucleus holds together indefinitely;
e. All stable nuclides lie close to the line of stability.

15
 140

N=A-Z

Z
Fig. Nuclei line of stability
16
f. Nuclei with Z > 82 and many nuclei produced artificially have
N/p ratios that make the nucleus unstable. These nuclei lie some
what away from the line of stability. These unstable nuclei can
undergo one or more spontaneous transformations which result in a
change in the N/P ratio and thus bring the nucleus closer to the line
of stability. During these transformations, the nucleus & hence the
atom changes from one element (parent) to a different element
(daughter). Such spontaneous nuclear transformations always
release internal energy and most of this energy is carried away
from the nucleus in the from of fast moving particles and photons
collectively called nuclear radiation. The unstable nuclei are,
therefore, called radioactive and the spontaneous process is called
radioactive decay.

17
g. An unstable nucleus becomes more stable by
undergoing a spontaneous transformation during which a
particle is ejected from the nucleus.
The modes of the radioactive decay are called:
•alpha (α )decay, • beta(β ) decay, and • gamma(γ )
decay.

18
h. The energy released in a single radioactive decay is small in
absolute terms, but is very large compared with the energies
involved (released or absorbed) in chemical reactions. The
energy unit used is the eV.
(1eV=1 electron charge accelerated between 1 volt
= 1.602 X 10-19 coulombs X 1V=1.602 X 10-19 joule)
i. Chemical reactions usually involve energy changes ≈ 1eV per
atom, while radioactive decay energies are typically ≈ 1 MeV
per nucleus.
ii. Electric charge and the total number of nucleons is
conserved in all form of radioactive decay.

19
 2. RADIOACTIVE DECAY MODES
2.1. Alpha decay: The alpha particle is a di-positive
helium ion, 42He2+, and comprised of 2 protons & 2
neutrons. This stable configuration of nucleons
(42He2+ ) is commonly ejected from heavier nuclei than
lead (Z=82), and not from light nuclei. The changes in
Z &A that take place can be written as:
A
Z
X (A-4)
(Z-2)
Y + 42α(42He)

20
The α -particles are mono energetic, i.e; they are not emitted with
broad range of energies, rather each α - particle is emitted with a
specific energy.
Most ∝-emitters give a group of discrete α particle energies,
because the parent nucleus may decay to one of many energy
states of the daughter nucleus as shown in the figure(e.g., for
212
83
Bi). A decay of an excited state of the daughter nucleus is then
happned by one or more emissions of gamma rays (γ ) as will be
shown later. About 160 α emitters have been identified, having
energies from ~4MeV to 10 MeV. as shown in the example (212 83 Bi
transformation in the figure):

21
 212
83
Bi 208
81
Tl + 4
2
α

The decay schemes of 12 83 Bi shows decay paths that

produce the discrete α- particle energies:
12
83
Bi Energy-states of the daughter nucleus
208
81
Tl
1 0.495 MeV
Parent nucleus

α-particle 2 0.472 MeV

energies 3 0.372 MeV
1 5.601 MeV Energy levels of the daughter
nucleus
2 5.621 MeV
3 5.764 MeV 4 0.040 MeV
4 6.050 MeV
5 6.090 MeV 5
0MeV (Stable daughter 208 81 Tl )
208
Tl 22
81
a. The α particles also carry away energy from the
nucleus.
b. The α particles energies are very specific and can
be used to identify the radionuclide.
c. Energy unit- the electron-volt is written as:
1eV= 1.602 X 10-19 J

23
 2.2. Beta Decay(an isobaric transition )
(i.e. A remains un-changed)

A beta particle is an electron (β -) or a

position (β +) originating from
radioactive decay(a position is the anti
particle of an electron, it is identical in
every way except that its charge is one
unit+(ve)

24
a. (β -)decay. If the conversion of a neutron (10n) into a
proton 11p) results in a more stable nucleus, then
(β -) decay will occur.A (β -) particle alone cannot
be emitted because such a change would violate the
law of conservation of momentum. An antineutrino
 -, is also produced with the (β -) particle. The
(β -) decay process is written as:
n p+ + β - + - or, n p+ + β - + -
Where `n’ is one of the neutrons with in the nucleus
(free neutron also decay by this process with t1/2 : 12
minutes).
25
The energy released in this decay process is
shared by electron (β -) and the nutrino.
Therefore, unlike the discrete energies of α
particles, the β - particles are emitted with a
range of energies (from 0 upwards to a fixed
max).

26
A typical β - energy spectrum is shown (figure--)

27
 b. β + decay.
i. If the conversion of a proton into a neutron will result in a
move stable nucleus the β + decay will occur. Analogously to
the β - decay, the β + decay will involve one of the protons in
the nucleus trans forming into a neutron. The process is written
as:

p+ n+β +
+ or, p+ n + e+ + .
As in the β - decay, the positron may have any energy over a
range from zero to a fixed max. The e+ has a short-life,
annihilating with an electron(e-) soon after it is created through
formation & emission of two 0.511 MeV γ rays.

28
2. Rather than emitting a e+, a proton may
become a neutron by capturing an e-, this is
called electron capture. Again, a neutrino is
required to satisfy conservation laws. The
electron capture process is written as:

p+ + e- n+

29
Some examples of beta decays are:
(a) Conversion of n p+ by emission, e,g.,

28 Ni + β + - (produces β - & - )
-
37 Co
60 60 +

Conversion of n p+ by emission, e,g.,

56 Ba + β + - (produces β - & - )
-
55 Cs
137 137

(b1) Conversion of p+ n by β +
emission, e,g.,

6C + β +  (produces e+ &  )
+
7N
12 12

(b2) Conversion of p+ n electron capture , e,g.,

7
4Be + e- 7
3 Li +  ( capture e- & produces ).

30
The decay scheme of 137 55 Cs, which decays by β -
decay, is
shown (fig.)
137
55 Cs (parent)
β - 0.512 MeV (94.6%)

0.662 MeV 137m 56 Ba (isomer)

excited state

β - 1.173 MeV γ 0.662 MeV

(5.4%) (85.1%)
0 MeV 137 56 Ba (stable)

Fig. Decay of 137 55 Cs to 137 56 Ba

31
Beta (β )decay – ISOBARIC TRANSITIONS
β - decay: n p+ + e- + ν (negative emission)
A- remains same
Z – increases by 1
β +
decay: p+ n + e+ + ν(positive emission)
A- remains same 2 γ of 0.511 MeV (annihilation)
Z – decreases by 1
Or , P+ + e- n + ν (electron capture)

(Note: can use e- or β -

, e+or β + )
32
Examples of β (β -, β +
) decay
β - decay : 60 27 Co 60
28 Ni + β
-
+ν
137
55 Cs
137
56 Ba + β -
+ν

β +decay : 12 7N 12
6C + β
+
+ν
7
4Be + e-
7
3 Li + ν

33
 2.3. Gamma Decay (an isomeric transition)

i. A daughter nucleus that exists in an excited stste (following an α

or β decay process), can when decay further by the emission of
photons(γ rays). The Z and A of the nucleus remain unchanged in γ
emission and, therefore, γ decay is an isomeric transition.
The life-time of the excited daughter nucleus is usually of the order
10-14 sec., however there are a few exceptions with some- what
longer half lives, e.g.
the transition 91m
41 Nb 91
41 Nb + γ (with t1/2 :60 days) is an
extreme case.

34
ii. An example of γ decay is 60 27 Co 60
28 Ni
(stable) where the parent nucleus (60 27 Co) first
undergoes β - decay to an excited daughter
nucleus(60m 28 Ni) which then undergoes γ decay as
follows:

35
60
27 Co (Parent)
By β -
(0.318 MeV)decay (100%)

2.505 MeV (excited daughter 60m 28 Ni )

By γ (1.173MeV) decay (100%)

1.332 MeV
By γ (1.332MeV) decay (100%)

0 MeV 60 28 Ni (stable state)

.. . E γ (total): (1.173+1.332)MeV=2.505MeV
Figure: Decay scheme of 60 27 Co showing gamma decay following beta decay.

36
a. Can only occur if preceded by α or β decay (which
gives excited daughter prod.)
b. The γ–ray is a photon of electromagnetic radiation
(I.e. light). It carries away excess energy from the
nucleus and has no mass and no charge.
Example 1
137
55 Cs decays by β -
decay to 137
56 Ba (excited daughter).

The excited daughter nucleus then emits a γ - ray to get

rid of its excess energy.

37
137
55 Cs
By β- (0.512 MeV)decay
(94.6%)

0.662 MeV 137 56 Ba (excited daughter)

by decay β- by β- (0.662 MeV)
(1.173 MeV) decay (5.4 %) decay (85.1%)

0 MeV (Stable daughter)

137
56 Ba
... Total energy E (β+ γ): (0.512 +0.662)MeV=1.174MeV
Fig. 137 55 Cs Decay scheme showing gamma decay following beta
decay. 38
Example 2
Ir decays to 192 78 Pt. The decay process may take one of
192
77
many possible paths. Only the major transitions are shown:

39
192
77 Ir (unstable) β-0.536 MeV41.0%

β- 0.672 MeV 0.921 MeV excited daughter

48.2%

2 5 0.784 MeV (192 78 Pt)

γ energies, intensities 0.612 MeV

1 0.296 MeV 29.0%
2 0.308 MeV 29.7% 6 1 4
3 0.316 MeV 82.8% 0.316 MeV
4 0.468 MeV 48.1%
5 0.604 MeV 8.2%
6 0.612 MeV 5.3% 0 MeV
192
78 Pt

Fig. 192 77 Ir decay scheme to 192 78 Pt

40
c. γ ray energies (like α particle energies) are
very specific and can be used to identify the
radionuclide.

41
2.4. Relative Intensity(% Probability) of Emission.

a. Not every decay/transformation of a particular

radioisotope will produced in exactly. the same
manner. e.g. the 192 77 Ir decay scheme(fig. above)
shows that, the unstable parent nucleus (192 77 Ir) may
decay by emitting β - particles with max. energy of
either 0.536MeV or o.672 MeV. Any one 192 77 Ir
nucleus can emit only of these β - particles. The
(%) probability that each β - particle will be
emitted (expressed in %) is called relative intensity.

42
b. The γ decay of the excited daughter
nucleus can also processed by a no. of
different paths with each path having a
different (%) probability of occurring,
however each γ decay path can involve the
emission of one or more γ rays (fig---).

43
 2.5. Neutron Emission

The most common source of abundant neutrons in

the nuclear reactor. The fission (spitting) of a
uranium or plutonium nucleus in a reactor is a
accompanied by the emission of several neutrons
with a wide range of energies with a mean energy ~
2MeV.
235
92 U + 1
0 n ( 236
92 U) *
Fission products +
Several 10n per fission.

44
Expect some fission fragments with very short half
lives, there are no radioisotopes that emit neutrons,
however, 252 98 Cf undergoes spontaneous fission at
average rate of 10 fissions per 313 alpha
transformations 252 98 Cf thus stimulates a neutron
emitting radioisotope. The emitted neutrons energy
range is wide, average being ~ 2.3 MeV

45
All other sources depend on nuclear reactions e.g. commonly
used sources depending on the bombardment of 94Be or 11 5B
with alpha particles are:
9
4Be + 42He (13 6C)* 12
6 C + 10n ………….
11
5 B + 42He (15 7N)* 14
N + 10n ………….
7

(com. Nucleus excited)

The neutrons produced are of high energy (AV.range ~ 1 MeV
– 5 MeV).
Alpha sources used are : 210 84 P0, 226 88 Ra, 239 94 Pu, 241 95 Am
The target(Be or B) and alpha source are mixed together as
fine powders and the mixture is sealed in a capsule.
46
By photodisintegration, the absorber nucleus
captures a γ ray, and in most instances emits a
neutron,

e.g., 94Be + γ (94Be)* 8

4 Be + 1
0n

is a useful source of mono-energetic neutrons. This

reaction has a threshold energy and, therefore, the
neutrons emitted with energy < the captured
gamma.e.g. the 2.75 MeV γ rays from 24 Na decay
give mono-energetic neutrons with 0.83 MeV.

47
 Neutron emission contd….

1) Nuclear reactor
Fission of 235 U, average neutron energy ~ 2 MeV.
2) Spontaneous fission
Approx. 3% of 252 98 Cf nuclei undergo
spontaneous fission instead of α decay. Average
neutron energy is ~ 2.3 MeV.

48
3) Nuclear reactions
9
4 B + 42 α (15 7N)* 14
N + 10n
7

9
4 B + 42 α (13 6C)* 12
6C + 10n
Average neutron energy is in the range 1 MeV to 5 MeV.
4) Photodisintegration

e.g., 94B + γ (94Be)* 8

4 Be + 1
0n

Neutrons are mono energetic, in this case 0.83 MeV.

49
 2.6.ACTIVITY

With radioactive materials, the most important quantity is the rate

at which it is decaying/transforming in unit time and is called
activity. Activity units are (i) curie(Ci)- the activity of a quantity
of a material in which 3.7 X 1010 atoms (nuclei) are
transformed/sec-01cl unit;
(ii) The SI unit is the bequerel (Bq)-
the quantity of the material in which one atom (nucleus) is
transformed or decayed per sec, i.e.
1 Bq= 1 transformation or decay or disintegration/sec.

50
Note: The bequerel does not mean the no. of particles
emitted by a radioactive source (Rs)/sec. In case of a
pure β emitter, 1 Bq results in on β particle/sec., but
for a complex transformations (e.g. decay of 60 27 Co,
55 Cs etc.), each transformation releases one β
137 -

particle and two γ rays; therefore total no. of

radiations per sec. per Bq=(1+2)=3
The two units (Ci & Bq) are related by:
1 Ci = 3.7 X 1010 Bq = 37 GBq
Similarly 1mCi = 37 MBq and 1μCi = 37 kBq

51
 2.6.1. RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAWS.
Radioactive decay/transformation is a random process. It is
impossible to say exactly, when any individual (particular)
nucleus will decay. All that can be said is that, the individual
nucleus has a probability at which it will decay in a given
time, is called decay constant (symbolized λ) and is defined
as λ = the probability that a particular nucleus will decay in
one sec., unit is per sec.(s-1 ). The decay constant (λ) is
different for each isotope, but for any given isotope all
nuclei have the same λ, regardless of its age, history or
environment. Any radioactive source will contain a huge no.
of nuclei (of the order:1020 ) and statistics calculate accurate
calculation.
52
 Activity, Decay law contd.

because, the average behaviour of such a huge no. is

well-defined:
Suppose, a radioactive source contains N no. unstable
(i.e. radioactive) nuclei of an isotope with a decay
constant λ.
Then, the average no. of nuclei that will decay in one sec.
is activity,
A= the no.of nuclei X probability of decay of a nucleus
in one sec, interval,i.e.

=Nλ 53
As time progresses, more & more nuclei will decay and,
therefore, the no. of the unstable nuclei will decrease with time.
The no. of unstable nuclei left any time (t) can be calculated by
the mathematical relationship between N & t (called exponential
decay law) as follows:

N = N0. e-λt or
= N0.exp(- λt)
Where, N0 = initial no. of unstable nuclei,
t = the elapsed time (sec), and
λ = the probability of decay of a nucleus/sec (decay constant)
54
Since the activity of the source is  to the no. of unstable nuclei (i.e.,
A  N, or, A = λN ), the activity (A) will also decrease with time in
the same manner ; i.e. A = A0. e-λt or
= A0.exp(- λt)
Where, A0 = initial activity and t = exposure time.

A commonly used term half-life, t1/2 , is related with λ as :

t1/2 = 0.693/λ or, λ = 0.693/ t1/2

The t1/2 is defined as the time required for 1/2 of the unstable nuclei
to decay, or equivalently, the time for the activity to reduce to 1/2 of
the initial activity.

55
Putting λ = 0.693/ t1/2 in the above activity equation, we get A
= A0. e-λt = A0.e –( 0.693/ t1/2)Xt
= A0 . 2-t/t1/2
A typical exponential decay curve of activity (MBq) Vs time(--) is
shown (figure):

Activity
(MBq)

Time (yrs)
56
Figure: Decay curve of a radioactive source
Activity, Decay Law Contd.
a. SI unit
1 becqerel= 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second
b. Old unit
1 curie= 1 Ci = 37 GBq
c. The activity of a radioactive source is given by
A=Nλ
Where, N is the number of nuclei present, and λ is the decay
constant (i.e. the probability that a particular nucleus will decay in 1
second).

57
Activity, Decay Law Contd.
d. Exponential decay law

A = A0. e-λt or, A = A0.2 –t T1/2

where T1/2 is the half-life and is related to λ by T1/2 = 0.693/λ .

58
Example.
A radiation gauge is labeled: 60 co, 250 mCi, 1st july 1972. What will
its activity be on 1st November 1993, in Bq? (The half0life of 60 Co
is 5.27 years.)
Solution
Firstly, convert the activity to Bq.
A = 250 X 10-3 Ci X 3.7 X 1010 Bq/Ci = 9.25 GBq.
Secondly, use the equation for radioactive decay to find the activity
on the required date. Elapsed time from 1/7/72 to 1/11/93 is 21.33
years.
therefore, A = A0 2-t/T1/2 gives
A = 9.25 X 2-21.33/5.27 GBq
59
=0.56 GBq.
 2.6.2 Natural Radioactivity

Radioactive materials are divided into 2 groups:

a. Those that are found in nature & exhibit natural
radioactivity, have half-lives comparable to age of the
universe, their unstable daughters, and those
continuously created by cosmic ray bombardment
(e.g., 14 C). Some are listed (Table).

60
 Table. Some naturally occurring radionuclides

Nuclide Decay mode Daughter Half-life(s)

radionuclide
40
19 K β - 40
20 Ca 4.10× 1016
87
37 Rb β - 87
38 Sr 1.48× 1018
115
49 Tn β - 115
50 Sn 1.58× 1022
142
58 Ce γ 138
56 Ba 1.58× 1023
190
78 Pt γ 186
76 Os 1.21× 1019
204
82 Pb γ 209
80 Hg 4.42× 1024
232
90 Th γ 228
88 Ra 4.45× 1017
235
92 U γ 231
90 Th 2.25× 1016
238
92 U γ 234
90 Th 1.42× 1017

61
The last 3 nuclides (232Th, 235U, 238U) are very
massive and produce a series of radioactive daughters
for a no. of generations (radioisotopes of: Ra and
Rn). All these decay series ends with stable 207 82 Pb.
b. Those made by synthesis, and exhibit artificial
radioactivity (many examples).

62
 X-ray
2.7. X- RAYS- Production and properties
X-rays are photons of electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
and have the same physical properties as of gamma rays
(γ ).
Production
i. Can be produced by radioactive decay e.g., β decay by
electron capture create a vacancy in inner orbital (atom).
Then electrons from outer orbital (i.e, of higher energy)
may drop down into the vacancy, and in doing so, release
their excess energy as a photon. If this excess energy is
sufficiently large, then the photon is an x-ray.
63
ii. In an X-ray tube.Electrons emitted from a
hot filament are accelerated to high velocities
by applying high voltage and focused into a
beam, impinge on a metal (e.g., 74W) anode.In
striking the anode, the high velocity electrons
are rapidly decelerated and hence, emit the
following radiations:
a. breaking radiation(bremsstrahlung) and
b. Characteristic radiation.

64
The breaking radiation has a wide energy distribution (0 eV to max.
depending on the applied high voltage).
e.g., if the H.V.=50KV, then the max. X-ray energy is 50KeV.
Characteristic radiation arises from the vacancies that are created
when electrons are knocked out of the inner orbitals by the high
velocity electrons (incident beam). Characteristic X-rays are mono
energetic(depends on the energies of the orbitals, hence, the nature of
atom i.e.anode material e.g., 74W).
iii.a. AV X-ray energy is controlled by changing the applied H.V.
b. Qty of the radiation produced in changeable by varying the
current flowing through the tube and the time of H.V. applied.

65
X-rays contd….

X-rays

66
Salient Points
a. X-rays have the same physical properties as γ -rays, i.e. they are
photons of electromagnetic radiation(emr). b. The maximum x-ray
energy (in eV) is equal to the value of the high voltage(in V). c.
The energy of the characteristic x-rays depends on the anode
material.
d. Advantages of X-ray tubes:
• can be turned off • very high photon flux • photon energy
can be changed
e. Disadvantages (- do - ):
• bulky • require power supplies

67
[b] The maximum x-ray energy (in-eV)
is equal to the value of the high voltage
(in V).
[c] The energy of the characteristics x-
rays depends on the anode material.

68
 3. Interaction of Radiation with Matter
( alpha, beta, gamma, x-ray, neutron)

The common property of ionizing radiations is to

ionize matter. The mechanisms of interaction differ
markedly with type and energy of the radiation.
An understanding of these mechanisms is important
for:
designing & selection of a detector,
understanding associated biological effects and
identifying the action needed.
69
The matter is, of course composed of molecules (atoms). The
incident radiation ( alpha, beta, gamma, x-ray, neutron) may
interact with either the nucleus or the orbital electrons. For
convenience, this interaction with matter is briefly discussed under
the following headings:
3-1. Interaction of Charged particles
(Section-A) a. heavy particles e.g., alpha
b. light particles e.g., betas (electron, positron)
3-2. Interaction of Un-charged particles
(Section-B) a. gamma and x radiations(photons)
b. neutrons.

70
Interaction of Charged particles(α ), contd.
3.1(Section -A) (a) Heavy Charged Particles (e.g..α ).
a. The distance to which the particles penetrate the matter
(air, tissue, etc) is called Range (R) of the radiation in the
medium.
b. Particular heavy charged particles of given energy:
• have almost same range in matter (with in a very
narrow limits); and
• follow almost straight track.

71
Both these regularities are a result of the fact that, for
energies upto a few 100 MeV, the main process of losing
energy in passing through matter is the transfer for kinetic
energy (K.E.) via coulomb forces to the electrons. This
energy transfer (K.E) results in the direct ionization (or
excitation), the heavy charged particle slowing down
(Slightly) at each interaction. However, because of the
light electrons (e-) compared with the incident α particle
they are swept out of the way and the heavy particle
continues almost undeflected, but with slightly diminished
energy. After a large no. of collisions, the particle K.E.
will be used up & it will stop.

72
This simple picture must be modified by considering
that, the collisions of heavy charged particle in its
passage through matter are random. therefore we can
only discuss the collision probability and if N
collisions are expected to stop a particular energy
particle, then 34% of such particles will experience
collisions outside of (N± √N) and, hence, the range
although quite uniform exhibits a straggling
phenomenon.

73
b. Light charged particles (betas:β -, β +):
The interaction of light charged particles, although still a result of
coulomb interactions differs in several ways from the heavy(α ).
Differences are a result of the lower mass which each deflection, thus
undergo many large angle scatterings in collisions with electrons or
with the coulomb field of the nuclei. Further there is a probability
that an electron will radiate while being slowed down. (X-rays or
breaking radiation). (On the other hand, heavy charged particles α
do not radiate appreciable in this way, because there a accelerations
are generally much smaller). These radiative losses of beta become
more important as E and Z increase. As a result of large angle
scatterings & radiative losses, the electrons initially of the same
energy will traverse quite different thickness of a particular material
before coming to rest.

74
Beta particles (β -, β +) interact in much the same way
with matter except that a β + (being an anti matter) finally
annihilates with a β - of the target atom(material).
The Emax (x-rays) emitted (in the breams strahlung process)
is just equal to Eβ - .However, most of the EMR emitted
has only a small fraction of this Emax (x-rays).

• Breams strauhlug radiation is an important problem in

shielding β - sources because although β - particles may
be easily absorbed, the more penetrating breams strauhlug
produced in the shielding material must be absorbed or
neutralized(but how?).
75
• A further problem due to β - interaction is that, β -
sources (distinct from conversion electron sources)
emit a spectrum of a broad energy(not mono
energetic).
Despite the complications (large angle scattering,
radiative losses, poly energetic β - sources), β
particles from a particular source may be considered
to have a particular range in considerably less than the
particle track length and the no. of β - particles
penetrating a particular thickness continuously
decreases. this is in contras to heavy(α ) track length.

76
 Interaction of Heavy charged particle(α )

The main range of α particles (from a typical source,

Eα ≈ 5MeV) is ≈ 4 cm in air (Rair ) and <25 μm. The range of
charged particles in matter is often expressed in g per cm2. To
convert it to thickness (in cm), this figure is divided by the
density of the material (g/cm3) in solid materials (Rx).

The range(R) of α - particle in a material (x) can be estimated

by, Rx = (Rair X ρair )/ρx

Where, Rair and Rx = ranges in air and the material respectively,

and
Pair and ρx =the respective densities(air, material)

77
 On average--34eV energy must be deposited in air per ion
pair produced, some energy deposited merely exciting
electrons to higher orbital, not producing ionization. Thus, a
5MeV α produces1.5X105 ion-pairs as it is brought to rest in
air.
No.of ion-pairs produced/unit path length is ‘Sp.
ionization's.A related term is linear energy transfer(LET),
which is the energy deposited (KeV) --m of path, causes both
ionization & excitation.

78
 Sp. ionization & LET are not coast, but depend on
the particle 7 its energy. Commonly, the slower the
particle the greater are the Sp. ionization & LET,
because the particle has a longer time to interact with
electrons.
Thus, for a particular charged particle the no. of ions
produced is a max. near the end of its range.(A plot
of Sp. ionization along the track of a charged particle
is called Bragg Ionization Curve).

79
Interaction of (β -, β +) contd.
Salient Features – heavy charged particles:
Alpha
α interaction with :
• the nuclei are possible but rare;
• the electrons (β -) occurs and all interactions via electrostatic
attractions resulting excitation of ionization of the atom/molecule.
Emax acquired by an orbital electron 1/500 of Eα.
Some ejected electrons are of sufficient K.E. to cause further
ionization (producing delta rays), range of delta rays is always
small compared to range of the α but characteristic the high conc.
Ionization along the alpha track (path).
80
 Alpha LET is also knows as linear stopping power(s)
of the absorber.
Rate of energy loss s = - ΔE/Δx
(correction term is : sp. Energy loss).
 Alpha particle emission is mono-energetic, I.e., for a
given radioisotope, all alpha particles (emitted) are of
the same energy.

81
 Range (R)
• the paths of α particles are quite straight,
• No attenuation no. of α -particles occurs until near the end
of journey.
• Range in air (with in 10%): for Eα < 4 MeV , R = 0.56E
(When Rcm, E MeV) for 4 < E < 8 MeV , R =1.24E-2.62
• Range in other media (Rx) = (Pair/Px) X Rair (cm)
e.g., ,, ,, tissue Rt = (1.11 X 10-3 ) . R (air) cm.

82
Interaction of alpha , betas, Contd.
Betas

 size orbital electrons.  Change in direction (by

collisions): very much greater. Path traced (track):
random
 Ionizing capacity : < by alpha. Hence, they lose Eβ more
slowly.
 Energy loss mechanisms:
• Same as alpha (e.g.excitation & ionization of atomic electrons
delta rays, etc.)

83
• Strong electrostatic interactions with the nuclei
(rapid acceleration of the β -, EMR losses (X-rays/bremss
trauhlung)

• For typical β
energies in low Z absorbers, the E photon
-

(bream) is small and usually reabsorbed close to its of

origin.
• Bremg. losses are:
E beta and
 Z2 (absorber material)

 E β emission from a particular nuclide is broad and varies up to

Eβ (max) (characteristic of the nuclide).

 Mean energy loss (in air) per ion pair, W = 33.7eV 84

 Range (R)
R β is quite indistinct compared to Rα for 3 main reasons:

• betas do not travel in straight paths;

• ,, are not mono-energetic;
• ,, produce bremssg.
 Plot log activity Vs absorber thickness provides two sections:
• the steep section – nearly liner, and • the shallower ,, - linear and
due to attenuation of bremssg. • Rmax is related to E β (max) and the
absorber material. Thickness of absorber are often
expressed in a real density (g/cm2).I.e., distance (in g.cm-2 )
= distance (cm) X density (g/cm3). Using this unit, the
combined effected of different absorbers can be calculated
(e.g., ) . 85
Salient features - betas
Back scattering
The large deflection- angle by β lead to back
scattering. e.g., a beta source deposited on a thick
backing ; betas emitted into the backing may back
scatter and re-emerge,
Back scattering is pronounced for:
• low incident energy, and
• high Z absorber materials.

86
 3.2(Section-B): Unchanged Particles
3.2(Section-B): Unchanged Particles
a. Gamma and X-radiations
The important parameters in interaction are the energy (Eγ , Ex) and
the Z of target material. Gamma and x-radiations are indirectly
ionizing particles, because the primary interaction leads to partial or
complete transfer of the photon energy(E photon ) to E e(-). This ejected
fast moving electron then ionizes the material(as described).

Gamma and x-radiations do not have a definite range in matter, but

are attenuated according to the exponential law: N = N0. e-μl.x
Where, N0 = no. of photons incident on the matter,
N = no. of photons remaining after penetrating
87
μl = linear attenuation co-eff.
This exponential attenuation results from the one-shot
nature of the interactions in which a photon is mainly
lost. The important mechanisms are : Photo electric
effect (P.E), Compton effect(CE), and Pair
production(PP).
The relative importance of the interaction of
Uncharged Particles (γ , x-ray)
The relative importance of the three process
(mechanisms) are a function of energy(Ephoton ) and Z
(matter).

88
 PEE
Ejection of an atomic (orbital) electron from an atom,
the incoming photon disappears. Because energy and
momentum are to be conserved, a free electron cannot
wholly absorb a photon. The more tightly bound the
electron (e.g., K>L>M>N,etc. shell), the more probable is
this mode (PEE) of interaction. thus, for a sufficient
energy photon, the most probable interaction is with a K-
shell electron or if the E photon < K absorption energy then L
shell electrons are more probably involved. For the same
reasons PEE is more probable in high Z material(inner
shell electrons are tightly bound).

89
This process (PEE) in most important at low E photon-
and the probability (σ(PEF) ) depends on Eγ and Z
(material) as per the equation:

σ(PEF) (proportional to) Zn .E-m

Where, n = 4 to 5 , m ~ 7/2

90
The photon electron will have a K.E.(E-e- ) acc.to:

E (e-) = Eγ - B.E.(Where B.E. is binding energy of the

electron in its original shell)
Note: B.E. for even K-electrons of Pb = 88KeV and,
hence, for Eγ >few 100KeV.

We have, Ee- Eγ

(for all materials)

91
The photo electrons behave as would any fast moving
electrons and ionize the medium, by losing energy in
collision & bremssg. processes. Now there is a vacancy
in an inner shell (orbital) which will be filled up quickly
by capture of free electrons and rearrangement,
characteristic X-radiation (or perhaps Auger electrons)
will be emitted in the process.
These variations are very important in the selection of
detector or shielding materials. Particularly, gamma
radiation shields are often Pb (high-Z).

92
 Compton Effect
CE

When a interacts with an outer-shell electron (loosely

bound), only a portion of the E photon is transferred to
this electron and a new photon (of lower energy scattered
photon, E photon and in different direction from the
original) is created. Because, all angles of scattering are
possible, the energy transferred to the electron (recoil
electron, Ee- ) can very betn. 0 to a large fraction of the Eγ
(photon). energy transfer for any scattering angle can be
derived through conservation of energy and momentum
as the following schetch and equation:
93
Scattered photon energy,
E´photon = Eγ (photon)

1 + Eγ (photon) m0c2(1-cos)

Where, m0c2 = rest mass energy of an electron (= 0.511MeV), and

the Eγ (photon) , E´γ (photon) energies expressed in MeV.

Note: This relationship is independent of the target material, and,

the energy transferred to the recoil electron (Ee- ) is,

Ee(-) = Eγ (ph) - E´γ (ph)

94
For small scattering angle (~0º) , the E´γ (ph)

approximates to Eγ (ph) and therefore, the transferred

energy is small. Max energy is transferred in back
scattering (i.e. when  = 180º)
The probability of Compton effect (scattering) is
relatively independent of Z but varies inversely with
the Eγ (ph) . Angular distribution of the scattered
photon in non-isotropic. Particularly, there is a strong
tendency for forward scattering at high incident γ
energies (Eγ (ph) > 500keV).
95
 Pair production (PP)
If Eγ exceeds 1.02 MeV, pair production is energetically possible.
This occurs in the electric field of a nucleus and results in creation
of an electron-positron pair. The K.E. of the pair is represent by:
E(pair) = (Ee- +Ee+ ) = Eγ (ph)
- 1.02 MeV

(Where, Ee- = electron energy and Ee+ = positron energy)

The formed particles (e- & e+) lose their energies as described, the
e+ subsequently annihilates after itself slowing down in the
medium. The probability σ(pp)  ~ Z2 increases sharply as
energy Eγ (ph)
(above 1.02 MeV) i.e. σ(pp)  Z2 . Eγ

96
Attenuation Co-effs. (Linear, Mass, Total) of γ ´s, x-rays :
For a photon beam, the contribution of each process to the
attenuation depends (in a complicated way) on Eγ and z.

The total linear attn. Co-eff. is the sum of the probabilities for
each process (PEE +CE +PP) as follows:
Thus,  total = PEF + CE + PP
Where,  total has units of cm-1 , and is stated as:

N = N0. e-  total .
X

97
Relative importance of three process as a function of energy is
shown (fig..)
Mass attn. co-efficient (
m) are also used and related to the linear
Co-effs. (l), by the density (ρ) as follows:
m(cm2.g-1 ) =  (cm-1 ) ρ(g/cm3)
The simple exponential law eqn. (as above) is strictly valid only for
a narrow beam photons. In the more general broad beam situation,
photons scattered in the material will contribute to the beam
emerging from any particular thickness of material.

98
Then, the attn. eqn. becomes:

N = N0. B . e- l
Where, B is build up factor and is >1, depends
on energy, material type and geometry and is
difficult to calculate theoretically. However
empirical values of B for various photon
energies, materials and specific geometries can
be found in the literature.

99
The amount of attn. (in terms of intensity) 0f γ ´s & x-rays varies
exponentially with absorber (material) thickness. Under conditions
of good geometry (i.e., well collimated narrow beam) and using a
mono-energetic beam, the following equation holds:

I / I0 = e- lx
Or, ln(I / I0) = - x lne = - lx
Where, x = the thickness absorber, and
I0 = intensity at zero thickness,
I= ,, after the absorber, and
l = linear attenuation co-efficient (cm-1 )

100
Half-Value Thickness (HVT) is the absorber thickness required
to reduce the radiation intensity to 50% of its original value:
HVT = 0.693 / l
Similarly, Tenth Value Thickness (TVT) is the absorber
thickness required to reduce the radiation intensity 1/10 of its
original intensity (i.e. 10% of Io) and is represented by:

TVT = 2.303 /l

The l is a function of photon energy and absorber (material).
Hence, the above equations do not hold for hetero energetic
photon beams.
Using mass attn.C0-eff.(m) = l / cm2/g ( = density), we
get

I / I0 = e- mxp or, ln(I / I0) = - mxplne = - mxp 101

In Board Beam Situation
When conditions of good geometry (i.e. narrow beam) are not
maintained, photons are scattered out of the region of interest and
also photons from other sections of the beam are scattered into the
region interest:
The extent of this effect depends on the photon energy and Z of
absorber (material). The previous attn. equation can be modified by
introduction of build-up factor (B) as follows:

I / I0 = B. e- lx
Where, B = I primary&secondaryradiations I primaryradiation
and can be attnd. empirically (as before) from the tables.for various
materials & photon energies.
102
Each particle of the pair loses energy by ionization as it moves
from the point of origin. When the positron energy becomes
quite low, it combines with a nearby electron (by a process
which is nearly the reverse of the PP); two gamma photons are
created to conserve momentum:
e(+) + e- 2 Eγ (photon)

These are annihilation photons and have energies 0.51 MeV

each. The annihilation radiation peak can be detected when
recording the gamma spectrum of a radionuclide which emits
gammas with an energy >1.02 MeV.

103
 MAJOR INTERACTIONS OF GAMMA, X-rays
PE Absorption
Photon is absorbed by an electron ( at energies of usually inner shell
electron) and the K.E of the ejected photo electron is : Ee- (pe) =
(E+Eb)

Where, Eb= binding energy of the atomic electron

The ejection of a K-shell electron creates a vacancy which is quickly

filled-up, therefore one or more characteristic X-rays may be
generated. The peak in the absorption Cross section occurs at the
binding energy of the K-electron. Photon energies less than this, are
insufficient for a PEE with K-electrons but sufficient for L electrons,
etc. Probability of this effect ( PE) increase with:
decreasing Eγ , increasing Z.
104
 Compton Effect(CE)

It is a partial interaction between the incident photon and electron

with conservation of K.E & momentum (like billiard ball collision).

The probability of Compton scattering:

- depends on the no. of electrons available, hence, increases with Z;
- decrease with gamma energy but not rapidly as PEE.

105
Pair Production(PP)
A photon in the coulomb field of the nucleus may disappear
by transferring its energy (Eγ ) to the creation of a electron-
positron pair. Virtually, all of the photon energy (Eγ ) is
transferred to the pair:
Eγ transferred into (e+ + e-) + K.E (of the two particles)

The energy of each electron mass = 0.51MeV, hence, the

threshold energy for this PP reaction is = 0.511MeV X 2
particles =1.02 MeV. Any excess energy (Eγ - threshold) =
K.E is almost equally divided between the two particles.

106
 RADIATION PROTECTION
4.1. Introduction
Ionizing radiation has the potential to cause injury to an exposed
individual. This injury is a result of the energy deposited in the
tissues by the radiation.
The deposited energy results in excitation and ionization of
molecules of biological importance (e.g. DNA, proteins, etc.) In
general, the more is the energy deposited (ionization produced),
the greater the injury; however, the effect is also determined by the
radiation type (e.g. α , β , γ , x-ray, n, etc.), the site exposed
(organ), the exposure rate and other more subtle factors.

107
 Note that, there is relatively little data on the biological
effects of radiation at the human level. The limited data
are available from: radiation therapy experience, studies
on Japanese Atom Bomb survivors and some accidents at
nuclear installations in the world.
Experiments on animals have provided the bulk data
showing an understanding of the mechanisms of injury of
an exposed animal. Such data is often due to relatively
high-dose radiations and, therefore, extrapolation to the
low-dose range may be in accurate.

108
 Biological effect of ionizing radiation on man is usually
divided into two categories:
SOMATIC and GENETIC effects.
Somatic effects are those that appear in the exposed
individual further sub-divided into early (within days or
weeks) and late somatic effects whereas, Genetic effect’s
exhibit themselves in the subsequent generations. Details
will be provided in the subsequent lecture(s).

109
 In passing through the body, the radiation deposits energy by
ionizing the body molecules (DNA, Proteins, etc.). The ionized
molecules result in modified bio-chemical reactions which may lead
to modifications in the cell-structure or cause the cell death.
Eventually, the effects may manifest as the “radiation-induced
injury”.
Many factors determine the occurrence, nature and severity of
the effect. Some of these are:
• Radiation dose – dose amount, dose-rate, time gaps between
exposures;
• Radiation type - e.g. α , β , γ , neutron, X-ray;
• The body organ(s) exposed, and
• Others.
110
 The radiation energy deposited per unit
mass of the exposed organ is called
“Absorbed Dose”, the unit is Gray (Gy): 1 Gy
= 1 Joule per kg. We will use the absorbed
dose concept (Gy) to express the amount of
radiation dose producing a biological effect.

111
4.2. RADIATION DOSES : Fundamentals Concepts

4.2.1. Exposure X
When passing through air, a photon (gamma, or X-
ray) may strike an air molecule and eject an electron,
leaving the molecule with a +(ve) charge. These +
(ve) ion and the ejected electron (-ve charge) are
combindly called an “ion pair”. Then the electron will
travel through the air, ionizing the molecules as it
passes through, and producing numerous “ion pairs”.

112
The amount of charge produced per unit mass (air) is a measure
of the “radiation exposure X” , and is expressed by the eqn:
Exposure X = ∆ Q/∆ m
Where, ∆ Q = total electric charge (either +ve or –VE)
∆ m = mass of air.
Note: ‘Exposure’ relates only to photons (γ , X-rays) but not
other radiations.
Units of X : The SI unit is coulomb per kg, Ckg-1 . The old unit
(which is still widely used) is the “roentgen”, R, 1R = 2.58x10-4
Coulomb.kg-1 (air).

113
Exposure Rate - X is defined as: the exposure divided
by the time of exposure
X = (exposure X / time) = dx/dt
Units are: C kg-1 S-1 , R S-1 , mRh-1 , etc.
Note: Many radiation monitors show readings in mR/h.
From radiation protection point of view, the quantities,
‘Absorbed Dose’ and ‘Dose Equivalent’ are more
useful (as discussed as follows).

114
 4.2.2. Absorbed Dose D
The energy deposited by ionizing radiation per unit mass of matter
and is expressed by: D = ∆ E/∆ m
Unite: SI units is Joule per Kg-1 , JKg-1 , and its special name
Gray(Gy). 1 Gy = 1.0 JKg-1
The old unit, still widely used, is rad (radiation absorbed dose).
1 rad = 0.01 JKg-1 = 0.01 Gy, or 1 Gy = 100 rad.
Notes: This quantity (D) and unit apply to all ionizing radiations
(α ,β ,γ , x, n, etc.).
When using this quantity, the medium (material) involved must
be specified (e.g. air, tissue, etc.)

115
Absorbed Dose-Rate D :
Defined by D = Absorbed Dose/Time = dD/dt
SI units are: Gy s-1 , µ Gyh-1 , etc.
Old units are: rad s-1 , lm radh-1 , etc.
Useful conversion: 1m radh-1 = 10 µ Gyh-1 .

116
4.2.2.1. Conversion of Exposure Reading
to Absorbed Dose in Air (i.e., X to D Air)
We know, Exposure readings, X = ∆ Q/∆ m ….we also
know, to produce 1 electron charge, on average, 33.7 eV (or
5.39x10-18 Joule ) energy is required. To produce 1 coulomb
charge in air, 33.7 Joule energy is required.
So, it can be shown that:
Absorbed dose in air (Gy) = 33.7 x Exposure (in CKg-1 ) Gy
( - do - ) (rad) = 0.87 x Exposure (in R)

117
 4.2.2.2. Conversion of Exposure
Readings to Absorbed Dose in
Tissue (i.e. X to D tissue)
In radiation protection, we are interested in the energy deposited in
tissue (and bone) i.e. in the Absorbed Dose (tissue). This will
depend on the mass energy absorption co-eff. of tissue for gamma
rays. This is turn depends on the energy of the gamma.
Now, D tissue mass absorption co-eff. Of tissue
D air mass absorption cvo-eff. Of air

118
We know, for an exposure X roentgen, D air = (0.87X) rad
Thus, D tissue = (0.87X) mass absorption co-eff. of tissue
mass absorption cvo-eff. Of air
Of ten the factor 0.87 and the mass absorption co-effs are grouped
together, called “ f factor ”.
Thus, D tissue = f X

For the common range of γ energies encountered in radiation

protection. ( say, 100 KeV to 2 MeV for tissue), f = 0.96. (For 30
KeV, f = 0.90, for 10 MeV, f = 0.93). So, for converting an
exposure X CKg-1 ) Gy, the “f factor” under this common
conditions = 37.4

119
 4.2.3. Equivalent Dose HT
This quantity has been introduced to allow for the fact
that, stochastic effects of radiation depend on the quality
of the radiation (i.e., on the type & energy). We can
define,
Eq. Dose, H = Σ R WR. DTR
Where, WR = a radiation weighting factor for the
radiation type,
DTR = absorbed dose averaged over a particular tissue (or
organ) for that radiation type.
Unit: Sievert, SV.
120
Note. HT Can be compared with the old term Dose
Equivalent H which was related to Quality Factor for
the radiation Q and the Absorbed Dose D by H = QD.
The old units for dose equiv. Where “rem” and
“Sieverts” .
Note: WR applies for stochastic effects (defined later) at
low doses, has specified values (Ref. ICRP60).

121
 4.2.4. Effective Dose E

The most important quantity in assessing radiation

hazards and rinks. E depends on HT (i.e. the absorbed
dose, D and the radiation weightily factor) and on the
radiation sensitivity of the particular tissue or (organ)
being irradiated. This tissue sensitivity is related to the
tissue weighting factor WT . (listed in Table, Ret:
ICRP60). The effective dose is defined as

E = Σ T WT. HT

122
Putting the value of HT (from previous eqn.) in this eqn.,

We get: E = Σ T WT. Σ R WR. DTR

Units: Sieverts, Sv.
This E actually represents conversion of a dose to part of the body
to whole-body dose which has the same effect i.e., it carries the
same risk.

Note : Weighting factor for a whole-body close Σ WT = 1.

E is for estimating the probability of stochastic effects only for
absorbed doses well below the threshold for deterministic (or non-
stochastic) effects (defined later).

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 4.2.4.1. Readings on Radiation Monitors.
Some radiation monitors in x-ray & γ -ray measurements are
still calibrated to show exposure readings ‘X’ in the old units
(e.g., mRh-1 )
For radiation protection purposes and for x-ray & γ -ray fields,
we can approximate them as follows:
1 R (exposure) = Irad (absorbed) = 1rem
Present/ newer monitors commonly provide readings in µ
Gy/h or µ Sv/h
From radiation protection point view, the dose equivalent (µ Sv,
mSv) is important.

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 4.2.4.2. SUMMARY of RADIATION QUANTITIES, UNITS,
Their CONVERSION RELATIONS, Etc.
QUANTITY DEFN & REPRESN Units
CONVERSION
(SYMBOL, EQN.) RELATIONS
Old New
Exposure Charge/unit mass, (ai), X =Roentgen, R Ckg-1 1R = 2.58x10-4 Ckg -1
∆ Q/∆ m

Absorbed Energy deposited/ UnitRadiation Absorbed Gray (Gy) 1 Gy = 100 rad

Dose mass (tissue, organ), Dose, rad= 0.01Jkg- 1Gy=1jkg-1
D = ∆ E/∆ m 1

Eqv. Dose Absd. Dosex Radn -

Weighting Factor,
- Sievert

HT = D X WR

Dose Eqv. Absd. Dosex radn Quality rem Sv 1 Sv = 100rem

Factor H=D x Q
Eff. Dose Eqv. Dosex Tissue weig. - Sv -
Factor, E = HTWT
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Note: For γ or x-rays, a useful conversion
relation for monitor’s reading are:
1mR/h = 1mrad/h =1mrem/h =10 µ Gy/h = 10µ Sv/h

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 4. Effective- Dose-limits
4.1 Historical Background
Roentgen produced the first radiograph (of his wife’s
hand). Numerous radiography where taken long exposure
times often as long as an hour or so were given. Radiation
injuries were soon evident. (e.g., skin damage, loss of
hair, loss of nails & fingers, in some cases death).
The first attempt to set a tolerance or permissible dose
rate was in 1902, when the limit was set at 10R/day(an
alarming level). Over the years until 1958, dose limits
where reduced to 5R/y for whole body and remained
essentially the same until 1990, when it has been set to
the 2/5 yrs.
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4.2 The International commission on Radiological
Protection(ICRP) and other Advisory Bodies.
The ICRP was set in 1928 (as a result of the
recommendation of the 1st international congress of
Radiology in 1925. The unit roentgen was introduced at this
time. Various committees have been set up by the ICRP to
make recommendations about special applications (e.g.,
ICRP-34: Protection of the patient in. Diagnostic
Radiology, 1982) The ICRP is widely recognized body
through out the world.
The ICRP (International commission on Radiological
Units ) has been set-up particularly to consider units.
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 Another well known and respected organization is
the National Council on Radiation protection and
Measurement(NCRP) set up in the US in 1928. It is also
a non Govt. voluntary body having a purely advisory
function. There are several publications of ICRP, ICRU,
NCRP, etc. The national Health and Medicine Research
Council of Australia make recommendation son
radiation standards for individuals in Australia
following the ICRP60 (1990).

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4.3 Radiation Workers and Members of
the Public(e.g., Australia)
A radiation worker (sometimes called designated employee) is
defined as a person who, in the course of his employment, may
be exposed to ionizing radiation arising form his direct
involvement with sources of such radiation (NHMRC 1981).
Such workers are also described as “Occupationally exposed”
workers.
A member of the public is defined as “ person who in the
course of this employment, has no direct involvement with
sources of ionizing radiation”(NHMRC 1981).

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 4.4. Stochastic and non- Stochastic or
Deterministic Effects of Radiation.
4.4.1. Stochastic Effects (means relating to the laws of Statistics
or Probability)
Defined as: The probability of an effect (not its severity) is a
function of dose but without threshold, e.g., hereditary effects,
some somatic effects(e.g., Carcinogens). Are illustrated by a dose
response graph as follows:
The main factors are:
(I) the graph is linear over the dose range of interest, and
(ii) no threshold dose.

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Note:-
Such a response curve implies that,
a. no recovery process from the radiation damage sustained;
b. the effects of the damage are additive and
c. the effects are independent of dose rate.
d. Stochastic effects are observed through a study of statistics
for a population.
e.g., incidence of Leukemia, death following whole-body
irradiation, genetic effects.

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 4.4.2 non-stochastic (Deterministic) Effects.

Defined as: The probability of such effects varies with dose,

and a threshold-dose may occur e.g., Cataract of the eye, non-
malignant damage to skin , etc. Are illustrated by the sigmoid
graph as follows:
The main features are:
I) Severity of the effect increase in a non-linear way with dose,
ii) there is a threshold dose below which the effect is not
observed.

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Note. The shape of graph implies that:
a) recovery process operate and the severity of effect will depend
on the dose rate,
b) successive doses are only partly additive.
c) these effects are observed in individuals who have received
doses in excess of the thresholds.
d) In particle, it is often very difficult to determine the shape of
the dose response curve at low doses, unless very large nos. of
test animals are used.
I cases of doubt, a linear dose response curve(stochastic) is often
assumed any error then which might ensue would be on the safe
side.

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 4.4.2. General Principles of Radiological
Protection(Ref: ICRP 60)
1. Justification a Particle: No practice involving exposures to
radiation should be adopted unless it produces sufficient benefit to the
exposed individuals or to society to off set the radiation detriment it
causes.
2. The optimization of protection: The magnitude of individual
radiation doses, the no. of people exposes and the likelihood of
incurring exposures, should be kept as low as reasonably achievable,
economic and social factors being taken into account(ALARA
principle)
3. Individual dose and the risk limits: Radiation exposures of
individuals should be subject to dose limits, or in the case of potential
exposures, to some control of risk.
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