AIRCRAFT MATERIALS

COMPOSITES
INTRODUCTION

CHRISTIAN
What is Composite:
The term composite is used to describe two or
more materials that are combined to form a
much stronger structure than either material by
itself.
 The most simple composite is composed of the
elements: a matrix (fabric) which serves as a
bonding substance (adhesives or resins), and a
reinforcing material. Prior to combination, the
matrix is generally in liquid form and the
reinforcing material is a solid. When the
substances are combined and cured, the part is
stronger than fabric is by itself, and stronger
than the resin is by itself.
Modern composites are advanced to the point
that they are strong enough to be used in
primary airframe components like rudders
and floor beams. In some cases the whole
airframe is designed of advanced composite
materials. Composites are used because
overall properties of the composites are
superior to those of the individual
components. While the structural value of a
bundle of fibres is low, the strength of
individual fibres can be harnessed if they are
embedded in a matrix that acts as an
adhesive, binding the fibres together and
lending solidity to the material.
The rigid fibres impart structural strength
to the composite, while the matrix
protects the fibres from environmental
stress and physical damage and imparts
thermal stability to them. The fibre-matrix
combination also reduces the potential for
a complete fracture; if one fibre fails the
crack may not extend to other fibres,
whereas a crack that starts in a monolithic
(or single) material generally continues to
propagate until that material fails.
Most conventional composites resemble plywood in
that they are built in thin layers, each of which is
reinforced by long fibres laid down in a single
direction. Such materials exhibit enhanced strength
only along the direction of the fibres. To produce
composites that are strong in all directions, the fibres
are woven into a three-dimensional structure in which
they lie along three mutually perpendicular axes.
. Composites are of greatest use in the aerospace
industry, however, where their stiffness,
lightness, and heat resistance make them the
materials of choice in reinforcing the engine
cowls, wings, doors, and flaps of aircraft.
Composite materials are also used in rackets and
other sports equipment, in cutting tools, and in
certain parts of automotive engines.
TYPES OF COMPOSITES

MAC
Polymer-matrix composites

 (PMCs) are the lightest of the three types of

composite materials. Recent applications of PMCs in
aircraft propulsion systems, such as General
Electric`s F-404 engine, have resulted in substantial
reductions in both engine weight and manufacturing
costs. Unfortunately, the low thermal-oxidation
stability of PMCs severely limits the extent of their
application. Commercially available state-of-the-art
high-temperature PMCs, such as graphite fiber/PMR-
15 and graphite fiber/PMR-11-55, are capable of
withstanding thousands of hours of use at
temperatures between 290 and 345°C).

Metallic-matrix composites
Several major problems limit the
development of inter-metallic-matrix
composites (IMCs), including chemical
incompatibility and CTE mismatch between
potential reinforcing fibers and matrix
materials, poor low-temperature ductility,
and marginal high-temperature oxidation
resistance of intermetallic materials.
Composite fabrication and joining processes
that do not result in excessive fiber/matrix
reaction or matrix contamination is an
additional need.
Ceramic-matrix composites.
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) combine
reinforcing ceramic phases with a ceramic
matrix to create materials with new and
superior properties. In ceramic matrix
composites, the primary goal of the ceramic
reinforcement is to provide toughness to an
otherwise brittle ceramic matrix. Fillers can
also be added to the ceramic matrix during
processing to enhance characteristics such as
electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity,
thermal expansion, and hardness.
The desirable characteristics of CMCs include
high-temperature stability, high thermal
shock resistance, high hardness, high
corrosion resistance, light weight,
nonmagnetic and nonconductive properties,
and versatility in providing unique
engineering solutions. The combination of
these characteristics makes ceramic matrix
composites attractive alternatives to
traditional processing industrial materials
such as high alloy steels and refractory
metals.
 PROPERTIES
(Advantages & Disadvantages)

CHRISTIAN
Advantages
High strength to weight ratio (low density high
tensile strength)
High tensile strength at elevated temperatures
High toughness
Light Weight
Chemical Resistance/ Corrosion resistance
Colour
Translucency
Design flexibility
Manufacturing economy
Expense
Application
Processability
Reduction of parts and fasteners
Fire resistant
Disadvantages
General expensive
Not easy to repair
MATERIALS
REINFORCING MATERIALS
 General:
 When combined with a matrix, the reinforcing material
(fibres) are what give the major strength to the
composite components. There are several types of
reinforcing fibres; the most commonly used are
outlined as follows:
 Fibreglass – Fibreglass is made from small strands of
molten silica glass and then spun together and woven
into cloth. There are many different weaves of
fiberglass available, depending on the application. The
wide range of application of the material and its low
cost make it one of the most popular used. Fibreglass
weighs more and has strength than most other fibre
material.
 Aramid – Aramid fibres are general characterized by
its yellow colour, light weight and its excellent tensile
strength. Aramid is a registered tradename of the Du
Pont Company and is an ideal material for aircraft
parts that are subject to high stress and vibration
(e.g. rotor blades). It is also used in bullet-proof-
vests. Damage to Aramid Structural components will,
in general, be repaired with fiberglass.
 Graphite – Black graphite/carbon fibre is very strong
and stiff and is used for its rigid, strong properties.
This material is used to manufacture primary
structural components like ribs and floor beams.
Graphite is stronger in compressive strength than
Kevlar. however it is more brittle than Kevlar. It has
the problem of being corrosive when bonded to
aluminium.
MATRIX MATERIALS

 General:
 The matrix is the bonding material the completely
surrounds the fibre to give strength and transfer the
stress to the fibre. The newer matrix materials have
good stress-distribution, heat resistant, chemical
resistant and durability properties. Most of these
newer matrix materials are epoxy resins.
 Resin matrix are two-part systems consisting of a
resin and a hardener or catalyst, which acts as
curing agent.
Resinsare a type of plastic and are broken
down into two categories:
Thermoplastic
Thermoset
Thermoplastic – Thermoplastic resins use heat
to form the part into a specified shape, and this
shape in not permanent. That means, if we add
heat again it will flow again to another shape.
So Thermoplastics can only be used in areas
where the temperature do not exceed 750°F.
Thermosets – Thermoset use heat to form and
set the shape permanently. The plastic, once
formed, cannot be reformed even if it is heated.
Most composite structural components are
made from thermoset resins.
Epoxy Resins – Epoxy resins are one type of
thermosetting plastic resin. They have good
adhesion, strength and resistance to
moisture and chemical properties. They are
used to bond non-porous and dissimilar
materials, like metal to composite
components.
Prepeg – Prepeg is the abbreviation of pre-
impregnated fabrics, and they are fabrics
that have the resin already impregnated into
them.
USES
CHOOSING MATERIALS

MAC
For Matrix:
 For the matrix, many modern composites
use thermosetting or thermosoftening plastics (also
called resins). (The use of plastics in the matrix
explains the name 'reinforced plastics' commonly
given to composites). The plastics are polymers that
hold the reinforcement together and help to determine
the physical properties of the end product.
 Thermosetting plastics are liquid when prepared but
harden and become rigid (ie, they cure) when they
are heated. The setting process is irreversible, so that
these materials do not become soft under high
temperatures. These plastics also resist wear and
attack by chemicals making them very durable, even
when exposed to extreme environments.
 Thermosoftening plastics, as the name implies,
are hard at low temperatures but soften when
they are heated. Although they are less
commonly used than thermosetting plastics they
do have some advantages, such as greater
fracture toughness, long shelf life of the raw
material, capacity for recycling and a cleaner,
safer workplace because organic solvents are not
needed for the hardening process.
 Ceramics, carbon and metals are used as the
matrix for some highly specialised purposes. For
example, ceramics are used when the material is
going to be exposed to high temperatures (eg,
heat exchangers) and carbon is used for products
that are exposed to friction and wear (eg,
bearings and gears).
For Reinforcement:
 Although glass fibres are by far the most common
reinforcement, many advanced composites now use
fine fibres of pure carbon. Carbon fibres are much
stronger than glass fibres, but are also more
expensive to produce. Carbon fibre composites are
light as well as strong. They are used in aircraft
structures and in sporting goods (such as golf clubs),
and increasingly are used instead of metals to repair
or replace damaged bones. Even stronger (and more
costly) than carbon fibres are threads of boron.
Polymers are not only used for the matrix, they
also make a good reinforcement material in
composites. For example, Kevlar is a polymer
fibre that is immensely strong and adds
toughness to a composite. It is used as the
reinforcement in composite products that
require lightweight and reliable construction
(eg, structural body parts of an aircraft).
Composite materials were not the original use
for Kevlar – it was developed to replace steel in
radial tyres and is now used in bulletproof
vests and helmets.
WORKING WITH COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
Safety

MAC
General:

When working with composite materials, correct

safety precautions must be observed. Pay attention
to the material safety data sheets (MSDS). On the
MSDS you will find the following information:
◦ Health precautions
◦ Flammability of the material
◦ Ventilation requirements
◦ Information for health professionals in case of an accident.
Safety Precautions
Some of the materials are very dangerous and
can cause allergic reactions, so take care if you
are working with these materials and observe
the safety precautions:
Do not let any of the materials come into contact with
your skin or with your clothes
Do not inhale vapors
Do not wash your skin with powerful solvents
Do not eat, drink or smoke in work areas
Do not machine materials without wearing protective
clothing and a dust mask.
DAMAGE TO COMPOSITE
STRUCTURE
General:

When damage is discovered on a composite

structural part, and before any further repair
work is performed, a complete investigation
of the affected area is to be carried out.
The investigation of damage is done using the
related chapters and pages of the SRM
(Structural Repair Manual) in order to
determine whether the damage is repairable
or not, and if so, the applicable type of repair.
Damage Detection
Damage may be discovered during scheduled
inspections required by the maintenance
program, or in unscheduled inspections when
the part has been subjected to accidental
damage.

Damage Evaluation
A complete inspection of the damaged area or
component will give the required information
concerning the extent and type of damage.
Depending on the type, extent and importance
of the affected zone, the damage acceptance
level may be determined.
Acceptance Level

In order to define the applicable repair

type and its associated limits (time and
size), it is necessary to initially determine
whether the damage is:
Allowable
Repairable or
Not – repairable
General:

For composites surfaces (as per the

SRM), damage is divided into two main
categories:
Skin not-perforated damage
Skin perforated damage.
DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION
Skin not-perforated damage includes:

Abrasion
Scratches
Gouges
Nicks
Debonding
Delamination
Dents
Skin perforated damage includes:

◦ Lightning strikes
◦ Holes
◦ Impact by foreign object, requiring
investigation for delamination moisture
contamination.
Abrasion

Abrasion is damage to a surface caused by

scuffing, rubbing or scrapping of the
component. Fibres are not damaged and
mechanical performance is not affected.
Abrasion damage is repaired by
restoration of the surface protection, in
order to avoid any fluid ingress.
Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion may occur when an

aluminium alloy part is in direct contact
with a carbon fibre surface in the presence
of a corrosive environment. In this case it
is the aluminium ally part (e.g. fitting,
lightning strike protection straps) which
corrodes and which needs replacing or
repaired if possible.
Erosion

Erosion could affect all the leading edge

surfaces, especially when the initial surface
protection system has been damaged.
Erosion, when undetected or unrepaired,
may generate composite deterioration. The
component may be completely perforated
and fluid ingress likely to occur. Restore
the protection of the area and install
additional protection if necessary.
Scratches / Gouges

A scratch is the result of contact with a sharp

object and only surface fibres are affected.
While a gouge is wider and deeper than a
scratch, several plies are affected, but the
edges of a gouge are generally smooth. For
scratches in general, only surface restoration
is necessary to prevent any fluid ingress.
Gouges affect structural strength and have to
repaired by removing the damaged plies and
performing a hand lay-up.
 Water Absorption

 Any detected moisture has to be removed to avoid

further damage.
 During any repair procedure, ensure that repair parts
are completely dry, in order to avoid any material
delamination during heat application. Water ingress
in sandwich structures is due to porosity of the skin.
It reduces performance and increases the weight of
the affected structure. Water absorption is a
phenomenon of resin properties. The absorption
stops once the resin is saturated.
Chemical Degradation

Chemical degradation principally affects

the resin and is generally due to
accidental contact with aggressive
chemical liquids or products. In case of
chemical degradation detection, the whole
contaminated area must be repaired.
Dent/ Depression

A depression or a dent is a deformity in

the thickness of an area. It may be caused
by impact. This type of defect requires
further NDT investigation to detect
delamination or debonding. On sandwich
structure, the honeycomb is generally
damaged and requires a repair.
Lightning Strike Damage
Carbon fibre is a conductive material while
glass or Aramid fibres are non-conductive
materials. The effect of a lightning strike will
not be the same for non-conductive
materials. (glass, Aramid) a large part of the
component, if not completely protected, may
be blown out because both skins are affected
and the core generally vaporized due to the
extreme heat.
Damage on carbon fibre structures will be
less significant (sports, small holes, or
charring).
 Allowable damage
 For each of the defined zones, a graphic is to be
used to determine allowable damage limits,
recommended repair types and repair associated
limitations. Damage type and dimensions, as well
as initial thickness, have to be know in order to
select and work with these graphics.
 Visual inspection is the principal method for
damage detection. Delamination or debonding can
be used by impact, abnormal loading or an
undetected manufacturing defect.
NOTE: SUCH DAMAGE IS NOT ALWAYS VISIBLE
ON THE SURFACE. THE COMPRESSION STRENGTH
OF THE COMPONENT IS AFFECTED AND WATER
OR FLUID INGRESS IS VERY LIKELY TO OCCUR.
Extent of Damage

Close visual and non-destructive testing

methods such as tap-testing, ultrasonic and X-
Rays are used to determine the amount of
damage.
For delaminated/debonded area of
determination, a minimum inspection area is
defined. In case of indication, the inspection
area must be extended until the limits of the
affected zone are located.
Surfaces Zones

As damage is not of the same significance

in each area of the component, each
composite surface of the aircraft is divided
into zones of different structural
importance.
REPAIR TYPES

General:
Recommended repairs can be of three
types:

◦ Temporary repairs
Permanent cosmetic repairs
Permanent structural repairs
PREPARATION BEFORE REPAIR

Before any repair action can be

performed, it is necessary to ensure that
the surface of the repair area has been
correctly prepared. This will ensure the
maximum bonding strength and durability.
INSPECTION OF COMPOSITE
MATERIALS

Tap Testing
Visual or Optical Inspection
Holography
Acoustic Emission
Ultrasonic
Radiography