Instructional Design

Metaphors and Explanations

Tara Peters
Boise State University M.E.T. Student
Table of Contents
Title page.....1
Table of contents.....2
History of ID Graphic.....3
History of ID......4
Definition of ID Graphic.....5
Definition of ID.....6
Systematic Approach Graphic.....7
Systematic Approach.....8
Why Models Graphic.....9
Why Models?.....10
Gerlach and Ely Graphic.....11
Gerlach and Ely.....12
ASSURE Graphic.....13
ASSURE.....14
PIE Graphic.....15
PIE.....16
Morrison, Ross and Kemp Graphic.....17
Morrison, Ross and Kemp.....18
Diamond Graphic.....19
Diamond.....20
DeHoog, deJong, DeVries Graphic.....21
DeHoog, deJong, DeVries.....22
Constructivism Graphic.....23
Constructivism.....24
Empiricism Graphic.....25
Empiricism.....26
Behaviorism Graphic.....27
Behaviorism.....28
Information Processing Theory Graphic.....29
Information Processing Theory.....30
ID and Ed Tech Graphic.....31
ID and ED Tech.....32
References.....33
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History of ID
While the study of learning began as early as the late 1800's the field of ID really began
during WWII when Robert Gagne and others developed efficient, effective training
materials for the U.S. military. (Leigh, 1999)

B.F. Skinner strongly influenced ID through the development of programmed instruction.
Benjamin Bloom developed and refined the taxonomies of learning many, of not most,
teachers and instructional designers still use today. Another early pioneer in the field was
Gagne, who had a great deal of influence on the development of ID as we know it today.
(Leigh, 1999)

Computers, the internet, and mobile devices have had and will continue to have a great
deal of influence on ID because technology continues to lead to refinements and
adaptations that allow instructional designers to make the most of the available theories
and models in a variety of settings to the benefit of students everywhere.

I chose the path as a visual metaphor for this slide because ID has followed a path with
some curves and stopping off points along the way. We do not see a definitive beginning
or end because there is rarely a straight pathway or absolute start or end points in most
historical processes. http://tinyurl.com/a59doc2
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Definition of ID
Instructional design is a systematic process we use to translate what we know about
teaching and learning into the assessments, materials and activities, and the evaluation
we need to create effective, efficient learning. (Smith and Ragan, 2005)

In order for instruction to be effective it needs to have an end goal in mind, and it also
needs to be developed in a systematic fashion. The instructional designer will want to
know the goals of the instruction or the problem to be solved, what sort or strategy will be
utilized, how the instruction will be delivered (live, online etc.), and what will success look
like? (Smith and Ragan, 2005).

Good instructional design will not only result in an effective product, it will also result in an
attractive product. Boring or confusing presentations will not capture the interest of the
learner so the content will not be viewed, or if it is viewed it might be forgotten.
Instructional designers are aware that content should be presented in such a way as to
drawn the learner into the setting and spark interest. http://tinyurl.com/bcfa7lv

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Systematic Approach
The systematic approach to instructional design provides a number of advantages. First,
it helps designers keep the learner in mind throughout the creation process. Each step
asks questions about the learner that the design must address in order to ensure the end
product is truly useful to the learner. (Smith and Ragan, 2005)

Designers also carefully consider the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of their
product. By using a systematic approach to each of these considerations the ID
professional can concentrate on what is meaningful to the learner while discarding
material that would be superfluous. A systematic approach is useful in a collaborative
setting. It provides a common way of thinking and communicating about the project and
makes review and revision easier. Other important considerations are that ID products
are products that can be duplicated, distributed and adapted to a variety of settings,. A
major advantage of using a systematic approach to ID is that objectives, activities and
assessments all line up and are appropriate. (Smith and Ragan, 2005)

The nervous system and its relationship to the rest of the body is a metaphor for the
systematic approach ID takes. While there are many parts to the design, they must all be
connected and directed by one common framework in order to serve their function.
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Why Models?
Instructional design models, like models in other fields, help us structure how we think
about a problem. By applying a model the instructional designer can approach the entire
problem one segment or issue at a time in a planned and deliberate manner all the while
keeping the learner as the center of attention. Models help us conceptualize, analyze,
and evaluate learning in a variety of contexts.

Many instructional design models exist because no single model would be useful in all
situations. Instead, a number of models have been developed to work better in one
situation than another. For example, the Morrison, Ross and Kemp model is effective for
classroom teaching but would not be as applicable in a systems-oriented setting. (Branch
and Gustafson, 2002)

The molecular model is a good metaphor for this concept because, like an ID model, it is
complex and meaningful to the trained eye but may only represent a nice form to the
untrained eye. Each individual piece is meaningful and deliberately placed, and all parts
are essential to the function of the whole. It is effective in that it does what it is intended
to do, and it is efficient in that it has no extra parts or pathways. http://tinyurl.com/afm83uj


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Gerlach and Ely
Although Gerlach and Ely prefer to start with objectives, their model recognizes that
content is important to teachers and may be many teachers' first considerations when
planning a course or lesson. Their simultaneously linear and concurrent model allows for
content to be considered alongside objectives so there is flexibility in the development of
the project. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

Learners are assessed then decisions will be made about the instructional strategy, how
students will be organized or grouped, which resources will be used and how time and
space will be allocated. These considerations occur simultaneously, and each has an
impact on the other. Once instruction has taken place then student performance is
evaluated and feedback provided to the teacher. Finally, revisions can be made based on
the evaluation and feedback. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

I chose a complicated highway interchange as the visual metaphor for this model
because like the model, the interchange is intended to move people in one direction to
get them where they are going, but many things are going on at once, and what happens
in one area will impact another. http://tinyurl.com/am323q9
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ASSURE
Heinich, Molenda, Russell and Smaldino developed ASSURE, which is a classroom
oriented ID model that is popular with classroom teachers because it aligns well with the
reality of classroom teaching. What does ASSURE stand for?

+ A - Analyze learners to determine their starting point prior to beginning
instruction
+ S - State the objectives so the desired outcome is known, specific and
measurable.
+ S - Select the media and materials that will enhance the learning process
+ U - Utilize the media and materials during instruction
+ R - Require learner participation including practice and feedback
+ E - Evaluate the results and revise the instruction to improve outcomes and
ensure
feasibility (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

I chose the picture of holding hands to represent the assure model because the metaphor
fits quite nicely with the idea that instructors readily understand this model and find it
useful, which is reassuring. http://tinyurl.com/a8rmvav
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PIE
Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell developed the PIE model, which stands for Plan,
Implement, and Evaluate. This model supports a shift from teacher-centered to learner-
centered instruction, and the authors describe roles for the students in every phase of
learning to highlight this point. The PIE model also promotes the use of technology in the
instructional process provided it is properly planned for, implemented and evaluated.
(Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

This model is interesting in that it is framed with a set of questions one one side of a grid
and the headings planning, implementation and evaluation on the other. The grid can
then be followed by answering questions as they relate to the three phases and this
process can help guide the teacher toward an effective and well considered plan. (Branch
and Gustafson, 2002)

Of course, the pie metaphor was rather obvious, but I particularly liked the smiling pies on
a stick because it represents something that is familiar and comforting but at the same
time presented in an innovative way. http://tinyurl.com/akw4xfq
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Morrison, Ross & Kemp
This learner-centered instructional development model focuses on curriculum planning.
By assessing both objectives and learners' needs at any point in the process,
instructional designers can deal with individual elements on an as needed basis, and
develop the instruction according to a number of key questions that characterize this
model. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

Teachers appreciate the concept of "start where you are" which allows teachers and
designers to do just that rather than start at a predetermined point (the beginning).
Teachers also find the emphasis on content, goals and resources familiar and attractive.
Evaluation is continuous and all activities are tied to goals, priorities or needs, and the
limitations imposed by the teacher's current setting. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

I chose the graphic I did to convey the idea that it is perfectly fine to just start from where
you are in this ID model. No need for panic if your situation does not exactly match a
preconceived idea of where you should be, just get started! http://tinyurl.com/acw5ouq
http://tinyurl.com/bb7spvq
Diamond Model
Diamond created a systems-based model for higher education institutions. He believed
that instructional design and development is a team effort, and his model is useful when
designing comprehensive curriculum as well as individual courses. Diamond encourages
input from various university personnel in order to address political and social as well as
learning considerations. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

One of Diamond's most appealing notions is that the instructional design process should
begin with ideal solutions in mind rather than thinking of what constraints exist at the
moment. His argument is that this starting point will encourage creativity and innovations.
This is the same idea I heard movie producer Jon Landau advocate recently, stating that
if creators merely think of what is possible right now they will always be behind the wave.
Truly creative thinkers imagine what is possible and then set about to make that dream a
reality. While this may not always be possible it is a worthy idea and can lead to unique
solutions to real problems. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

The metaphor is obvious but a good one in that one can see clearly all the different facets
of the diamond or product as rather plain on their own but brilliant in the end product they
produce in the aggregate. http://tinyurl.com/bb7spvq
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DeHoog, deJong, DeVries
DeHoog, deJong and DeVries developed a product- oriented instructional design model
suitable for simulations and expert systems. They stress a comprehensive approach to
the design process much like a web in that the results will be inferior or non-productive if
the system is not followed properly. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

Their model is made up of smaller models which are the conceptual, operational,
instructional, interface and learner models. Each has a specific role in the overall
development process and must be adequately addressed but often by different teams.
The model appears to be at least somewhat specialized and not readily applicable to
some environments but undoubtedly quite relevant to others. (Branch and Gustafson,
2002)

Like their model, the spider web requires near perfect execution in the design, the
process and the materials used. Each has a specific role and must be performed or
created as intended in order for the web to be functional and hold up over time. As the
creators of this model state, the approach must be comprehensive or the results will be
disastrous. http://tinyurl.com/au4ab64

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Constructivism
Constructivism is an educational philosophy grounded in the idea that reason is the
primary source of knowledge and that we construct rather than discover knowledge.
While not all educators that consider themselves constructivists hold the same ideas
about this educational philosophy, they do believe that learners construct their own
knowledge. (Smith and Ragan, 2005)

Learners do this through experience and by applying personal interpretations to
knowledge, and by actively participating in knowledge construction. As new knowledge is
added to old knowledge ideas are re-examined and reconstructed, resulting in new
knowledge. While perspectives vary about constructivism, its meaning and the exact
process, some of the most influential ideas are that learning is collaborative (social
constructivism) and that learners should be involved in realistics settings in order to
experience "authentic" learning. (Smith and Ragan, 2005)

The graphic represents these ideas because this painting likely means different things to
different people. Previous ideas and experiences, the observations of others and
perspective might all influence how individuals will view and interpret this painting.
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Empiricism
Knowledge is acquired through objective or sensory experience rather than a mental
reconceptualization of experience and ideas. Empiricists will also reduce complex ideas
into more simple components and relate ideas and experiences to create a contiguous
progression of knowledge acquisition and understanding. (Smith and Ragan, 2005)

In empiricism, scientific experimentation creates data which is then used to formulate
general conclusions about the way things work. For example, nurses value evidence-
based practice because the care we provide to patients should be based on proven
practices rather than our individual or even collective ideas about what feels right at the
moment. This is a sort of empiricism in that we identify a question, study it and generate
data, then draw evidence-based conclusions from that data.

What better representative of the concept of empiricism than Albert Einstein? He and
many others have considered an idea, formulated hypotheses, then set about gathering
evidence and running experiments until the hypothesis was proved or disproved.
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Behaviorism
While those who adhere to the behaviorist theory have a range of views, one common
idea is that the only really worthwhile aspect of human learning worth studying is that
which can be observed or measured. Thinking processes and and other unobservable
states are given a backseat to an interest in observable, measurable phenomena. (Smith
and Ragan, 2005)

Behaviorism embraces the idea that learners respond to their environment and when
those responses result in positive reinforcement (some kind of a reward), then learners
will repeat those learned behaviors (conditioning) in the presence of certain stimuli even
in the absence of the expected reward. The idea of programed instruction has its roots in
behaviorism, and these ideas further led to the idea that innovations such as nonhuman
mediated instruction could be developed, tested, and made effective. While one might
think of Pavlov's dog when the subject of behaviorism arises, the theory has had a major
impact on how quality ID is developed and tested. (Smith and Ragan, 2005)

The high jumper represents behaviorism because what is important in the high jump, the
execution and the results, can both be observed and measured. Consistent execution
leads to consistent results which serve to reinforce desirable behaviors.
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Information Processing Theory
Learning is a series of transformations of information that take place in the brain. The
brain structures that allow information to be processes as the theory describes are
theoretical and are likely not provable in a physical sense. however, the idea is these
structures process information and serve to mediate between the instruction offered and
the learner. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

Some have describe these structures as a type of storage, with learning explained as the
transformation of information through these structures, processors, and sub-processors.
Only needed information that is actively perceived is processed, which prevents a system
overload. Prior learning and experiences help us filter out extraneous stimuli so we can
attend to what we perceive as important. This cognitive theory helps explain why a novice
might process information differently than an expert or why they might consider some
stimuli important whereas the expert pay it little head. (Branch and Gustafson, 2002)

The metamorphosis of the caterpillar to the butterfly is a metaphor for this idea in that
one step leads to another and that results build over time. Just as the learner must go
through certain steps to move from being a novice to an expert, the caterpillar must do
the same to go from its present state to being a butterfly. http://tinyurl.com/b3tdqq
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ID and Ed Tech
Instructional Design and Educational Technology are closely linked because ID provides
us with a systematic approach to both the educational process and how technology will
be used to enhance the educational experience the instructional designer envisions.

When we utilize the type of systematic approach ID demands we can determine what
needs to be taught, how the information needs to be delivered, and how learner
achievement will be measured. Educational technology can help us deliver content in an
efficient, attractive way that is accessible to learners regardless of location or time.
Technology can also allow us to create simulations, illustrations and demonstrations that
learners can access repeatedly which enhances learning. If repetition and trial and error
are effective instructional methods, then any technology that allows instructional
designers deliver learning experiences that make this possible should be welcomed by ID
professionals.

The double helix is a good metaphor for the relationship between ID and Ed Tech
because both parts of the whole have their own distinct purpose and structure, but when
they are linked systematically the resulting product moves beyond the limitations of each
individual part resulting in infinite possibilities. http://tinyurl.com/baeg7hw

References
Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of Instructional Development Models. (4th Ed.).
Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology.
Leigh, D. (1999). A Brief History of Instructional Design. Retrieved from
http://www.pignc-ispi.com/articles/education/brief%20history.htm.
Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional Design (3rd Ed). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley/Jossey-Bass
Education.