CHAPTER 2 :

MOISTURE CONTENT AND

DRYING RATE
CALCULATIONS

Ms Noor Rosyidah Binti Sajuni
School of Engineering

rosyidah@ucsiuniversity.edu.my
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lessons, students should
be able to:
Define the drying process
Explain the classification of dryers
Explain the principles of drying
Perform calculation in this topics
INTRODUCTION
Drying -Definition:
The removal of water or other solute from the solid material to
reduce the content of residual liquid to an acceptable low
value.
Drying is the final step in a series of manufacturing process.
Drying is carried out before the products undergo packaging or
dispatched to the warehouse.
INTRODUCTION
Water or other liquid may be removed from the solid:
a) mechanically by presses or centrifuges
b) thermally by vaporization drying
It is cheaper to remove liquid mechanically than
thermally.
The product contain no liquid bone dry
Commonly, product does contain some liquid
Example: dried table salt (0.5%), dried coal (4%)
INTRODUCTION
The solid to be dried may be in many different forms: flakes,
granules, crystals, powder, slabs or continuous sheets.
The liquid to be vaporized may be:
a) on the surface of solid
b) entirely inside the solid
c) partly inside and partly outside of solid
INTRODUCTION
Drying is carried out for one of the following reasons:
a) to reduce the cost of transport
b) to make a material more suitable for
handling
c) to provide definite properties
d) to remove moisture which may otherwise lead to corrosion.
MOISTURE CONTENT RELATIONSHIPS
Moisture/solid equilibrium
relationships

Figures 9.4-1 and 9.4-2 for
several types of systems

Defined on the basis of relative
humidity at a specific
temperature

Equilibrium amount of
moisture tends to decrease with
increasing temperature
RATE OF DRYING CURVES FOR CONSTANT DRYING
CONDITIONS
RATE OF DRYING CURVES FOR CONSTANT DRYING
CONDITIONS
MOISTURE CONTENT VARIABLES
Based on the mass of moisture relative to the mass
bone dry solid
( )
( )
) Moisture Surface (
. X X Bound Above Content Moisture X
Moisture Unbound
% 100 H with Saturation @ Content Moisture X
) 2 5 . 9 ( X X Content Moisture Free X
Content Moisture m Equilibriu X
1 5 . 9
BDS Solid Dry Mass
Liquid Mass
X
B t U
R B
*
t
*
t
= =
= =
= =
=
=

IMPORTANT TERMS
Equilibrium moisture, X
*

The lowest moisture content obtainable at equilibrium
under the drying conditions used.

Free moisture
The moisture that can be removed by drying under
the given % relative humidity: X
t
X*
IMPORTANT TERMS
Bound moisture
The minimum moisture a material can carry.

Unbound moisture
The excess moisture content in the material.
DRYING EQUIPMENTS
Batch Operation
Tray Dryers
Agitated Dryers

Continuous Operation
Spray Dryers
Tunnel Dryers
Rotary Dryers
Drum Dryers


SOLID HANDLING IN ADIABATIC
DRYERS
Figure 2.1: Patterns of gas-solid interaction in
dryer
Rate of Drying Curves
In the drying process, it is desired to
estimate:
the size of dryer needed,
the various operating conditions of humidity and temperature
for the air used
the time needed to perform the amount of drying required.
Rate of Drying Curves
Equilibrium moisture content cannot be predicted and must be
determined experimentally.
The data obtained from the experiments can be converted to
drying rate.

Rate of Drying Curves: Method 1
Plot X versus t
- get the slopes of tangents at different values of t
which give values of dX/dt.
- determine drying rate, R from each point.



where L
s
= mass of dry solid used
A = exposed surface area for
drying
dt
dX
A
L
R
s
=
Rate of Drying Curves: Method 1
Drying curve is obtained by plotting R versus moisture content
as in Figure 9.5-1b.
Rate of Drying Curves: Method 2
Calculate weight loss X for a t time (Eqn 9.5-3).



Drying rate, R is the average over the period t and
plotted at the average concentration X.
dt
dX
A
L
R
s
=
Rates of drying for constant-drying
conditions
Drying Curve (pg 577-578)
Point A : 1. At zero time the initial free moisture content is shown

Point A : 1. Solid quite hot

Point B : surface temp rises to its equilibrium value

Point B-C : 1. line is straight
2. slope and rate are constant during this period
3. Constant rate of drying period is shown

Point C : 1. Drying rate starts to decrease in the falling rate
period until it reaches point D

Point CD : 1. First falling rate period.
2. The line is often linear






Point D : 1. surface completely dry.
2. The rate of drying falls even more rapidly until it
reaches point E
3. EMC is 0

Point D-E : second falling-rate period
evaporation from interior of solid.

Point E : equilibrium moisture content X*.
X =X* - X* =0
no further drying.




Critical moisture content
Critical moisture content is the point at which the constant rate
period ends (whether or not the drying rate is truly constant).
If the initial moisture content of the solid is below the critical
value, there will be no constant rate period.
The critical moisture content depends on:
- the thickness of material
- the rate of drying
- the resistances to heat and mass transfer within the
solid.
Rates of drying
Graph A:

Total moisture content
decrease when liquid
start vaporized from
the solid.

Value become stable
which indicates a little
water left in the solid
(allowable min.
moisture content).

Figure 2.7:
Plots of total moisture contents and drying rate vs drying
time
Rates of drying
Graph B:

The drying rate increases until a certain period where the
drying rate is constant (constant rate period)
This shows that liquid continues to vaporize which is due to
constant supplying of heat.
The drying rate decreases which shows that less liquid
being vaporize from the wet solid (falling rate period).
When the stage of equilibrium moisture content has been
achieved between the solid and hot gas, the drying rate has
stopped (no more liquid has vaporized from the solid)
Calculation methods for constant rate
drying period
Method using experimental drying curve
Using drying curve (Ex 9.6-1):
- based on actual experimental data
- the time required for constant rate period can be
determined directly from drying curve (free moisture
content vs. time)

Using rate of drying curve for constant rate period:
- the drying rate R is defined as (Eqn 9.5-3)
dt
dX
A
L
R
s
=
Calculation methods for constant rate
drying period pg 580
Rearrange and integrate over the time interval to dry from X
1

at t
1
= 0 to X
2
at t
2
= t. (Eqn 9.6-1)



If the drying takes place within the constant rate period, X
1

and X
2
are greater than the critical moisture content X
c
,
R = constant = R
c
(Eqn 9.6-2)


} }
= =
=
=
1
2
2
1
0
X
X
s
t t
t
R
dX
A
m
dt t
) (
2 1
X X
AR
m
t
c
s
=
Example 9.6.1 (using graph 9.5-1a)
A solid whose drying is represented by Figure 2.6 is to be dried from a
free moisture content X
1
= 0.38 kg H
2
O/kg dry solid to X
2
= 0.25 kg
H
2
O/kg dry solid. Estimate the time required.
Example 9.6.2
9.7 Calculation methods for falling rate
drying period pg 585
Method using graphical integration
In the falling rate period, the rate of drying, R is not constant but decrease
when drying proceeds past the critical free moisture content, X
c
When the free moisture content, X is zero, the rate drops to zero.
The time for drying between X
1
and X
2
is (Eqn 9.6-1):



If the rate is constant, this equation can be integrated to give Eq. 9.6-2
This equation can be graphically integrated by plotting 1/R versus X and
determining the area under the curve.

}
=
1
2
X
X
s
R
dX
A
L
t
Example 9.7.1
A batch of wet solid whose drying rate curve is represented by Figure
9.5-1b is to be dried from a free moisture content of X
1
= 0.38 kg
H
2
O/kg dry solid to X
2
= 0.04 kg H
2
O/kg dry solid . The weight of the
dry solid is 399 kg dry solid and A = 18.58 m
2
of top drying surface.
Calculate the time for drying.
SOLUTION

1. FOR CONSTANT RATE PERIOD
2. FOR FALLING RATE PERIOD
}
=
1
2
X
X
s
R
dX
A
L
t
To determine this area by numerical integration using a spreadsheet, the
calculations are given in this following table
X R 1/R X (I/R)av (X)(1/R)av
0.195 1.51
0.150 1.21
0.100 0.90
0.065 0.71
0.050 0.37
0.040 0.27
TOTAL 0.1889
Calculation methods for falling rate drying period
Special case in falling rate period (pg 587)

1. Rate is linear function of X
If X
1
and X
2
are less than X
c
and the rate R is linear in X over
this region,




a = slope of line
b = constant
1) - (9.7 b aX R + =
adX dR =
Calculation methods for falling rate drying
period
Substitute into equation;



Since R
1
= ax
1
+ b and R
2
= aX
2
+ b,

2
1 s
R
R
s
R
R
ln
aA
L
R
dR
aA
L
t
1
2
= =
}
2 1
2 1
X X
R R
a

=
Calculation methods for falling rate drying
period
Substitute into equation Eqn (9.7-3) into (9.7-2);

(9.7-4)


2. Rate is a linear function through origin
The rate of drying is directly proportional to the free moisture
content


2
1
2 1
2 1 s
R
R
ln
) R R ( A
X X ( L
t

=
aX R =
Calculation methods for falling rate drying
period
Differentiating, dX = dR/a;



The slope a of the line is R
c
/X
c
and for X
1
= X
c
at R
1
= R
c



2
1
ln
1
2
R
R
aA
m
R
dR
aA
m
t
s
R
R
s
= =
}
2
ln
R
R
AR
X m
t
c
c
c s
=
Calculation methods for falling rate drying
period
R
c
/R
2
= X
c
/X
2
,

(9.7-8)


c
c
2
c
c
c s
X
X
R R
OR
X
X
ln
AR
X L
t
=
=
Example 9.7.2
Repeat example 9.7-1, but as an approximation assume a straight line of
the rate R versus X through the origin from point X
c
to X = 0 for the
falling rate period.
DRYING RATE CURVES
Depend on whether heat or mass transfer controls
free moisture vs. time
drying rate vs. moisture content
http://www.ias.ac.in/sa
dhana/Pdf2005Oct/PE1
280.pdf
ADDITIONAL NOTES

DRYING REGIMES
constant rate - no limit to mass transfer in solid phase
surface moisture
transfer near surface

falling rate
moisture flux
through the solid
is hindered

critical points occur
between constant
rate and falling rate
with a change in the
falling rate drying
mechanism
DRYING MODELS
RATES FROM EMPIRICAL DATA



CONSTANT RATE DRYING
CONTROLLED BY HEAT TRANSFER TO VAPORIZE
THE MOISTURE OR MASS TRANSFER
) 3 5 . 9 (
A
A
=
t A
X L
R
S
( )
( ) 7 6 . 9 ) ( =

= H H M k
T T h
R
W B y
W
W
C

FACTORS THAT AFFECT h

AIR VELOCITY (G)
GAS HUMIDITY (T T
W)
AND (H
W
-H)
GAS TEMPERATURE (T T
W)
AND (H
W
-H)
SOLID THICKNESS - NO EFFECT ON RATE FOR
SURFACE MOISTURE
MATERIALS SURFACE FINISH OR ANY
CONDITION THAT STIMULATES
TURBULENCE
J. E. SUGARMAN & T. J. VITALE, OBSERVATIONS ON THE DRYING
OF PAPER: FIVE DRYING METHODS AND THE DRYING PROCESS
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , 1992, Volume 31,
Number 2, Article 3 (pp. 175 to 197)
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3179491?seq=1
CONSTANT RATE DRYING TIME
DRYING TIME CAN BE CALCULATED BY
INTEGRATING (9.5.-3)
LOWER VALUE OF X > X
C
(CRITICAL POINT)
}
> =
1
2
2
X
X
C
C
S
R
X X WHERE
R
dX
A
L
t
C
FALLING RATE DRYING
CONTROLLED BY
GAS PHASE MASS TRANSFER FROM SOLID
OR HEAT TRANSFER INTO THE SOLID TO
VAPORIZE THE MOISTURE.
GENERAL FORM OF THE EQUATION:
X
1
< X
C
( ) 1 6 . 9
) (
1
2
=
}
X
X
S
F
X R
dX
A
L
t
FALLING RATE DRYING
NUMERICAL CALCULATION FOR COMPLEX SYSTEMS
SEE EXAMPLE (9.7-1) FOR NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
SIMPLIFICATIONS FOR LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS: R(X) = aX + b





FOR b = 0, LINEAR THRU ORIGIN
) 4 7 . 9 ( ln
) (
) (
2
1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1

=
R
R
R R A
X X L
t SO
X X
R R
a
S
F
) 8 7 . 9 ( ln ln
2 2
= = =
X
X
AR
X L
R
R
AR
X L
t SO aX R
C
C
C S C
C
C S
F
FALLING RATE EXAMPLE
Shibata, H.; Iwao,
Y., Vacuum Drying
of Sintered Spheres
of Glass Beads,
Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res.; 1999; 38(9);
3535-3542
FALLING RATE EXAMPLE
Carmen Rossello, Jaime Canellas, Susana Simal, Angel Berna, Simple mathematical model
to predict the drying rates of potatoes, J. Agric. Food Chem.; 1992; 40(12); 2374-2378.