Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE

Spring 2002 VTech Calvin Project

For Prof. Ribeiro
_
+
Operational Amplifiers

Tutorial Series
Table of Contents
The Operational Amplifier______________________________slides 3-4
The Four Amplifier Types______________________________slide 5
VCVS(Voltage Amplifier) Summary:
Noninverting Configuration____________slides 6-9
Inverting Configuration________________slides 10-12
ICIC(Current Amplifier) Summary________________________slide 13
VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary_____________slides 14-15
ICVS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary_______________slides 16-18
Power Bandwidth_____________________________________slide 19
Slew Rate____________________________________________slide 20
Slew Rate Output Distortion____________________________ slide 21
Noise Gain___________________________________________slide 22
Gain-Bandwidth Product_______________________________slide 23
Cascaded Amplifiers - Bandwidth________________________slide 24
Common Mode Rejection Ratio__________________________slides 25-26
Power Supply Rejection Ratio___________________________slide 27
Sources_____________________________________________slide 28

The Operational Amplifier
Usually Called Op Amps
An amplifier is a device that accepts a varying input signal and
produces a similar output signal with a larger amplitude.
Usually connected so part of the output is fed back to the input.
(Feedback Loop)
Most Op Amps behave like voltage amplifiers. They take an input
voltage and output a scaled version.
They are the basic components used to build analog circuits.
The name operational amplifier comes from the fact that they were
originally used to perform mathematical operations such as
integration and differentiation.
Integrated circuit fabrication techniques have made high-
performance operational amplifiers very inexpensive in comparison
to older discrete devices.
i
(+)
, i
(-)
: Currents into the amplifier on the inverting and noninverting lines
respectively
v
id
: The input voltage from inverting to non-inverting inputs
+V
S
, -V
S
: DC source voltages, usually +15V and 15V
R
i
: The input resistance, ideally infinity
A : The gain of the amplifier. Ideally very high, in the 1x10
10
range.
R
O
: The output resistance, ideally zero
v
O
: The output voltage; v
O
= A
OL
v
id
where A
OL
is the open-loop voltage gain
Equivalent Circuit of an Op-amp
+V
S
-V
S
v
id
Inverting
Noninverting
Output
+

_

i
(-)
i
(+)
v
O
= A
d
v
id
R
O
A
R
i
The Four Amplifier Types
Description
Gain
Symbol
Transfer
Function
Voltage Amplifier
or
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
A
v
v
o
/v
in
Current Amplifier
or
Current Controlled Current Source (ICIS)
A
i
i
o
/i
in
Transconductance Amplifier
or
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCIS)
g
m
(siemens)
i
o
/v
in
Transresistance Amplifier
or
Current Controlled Voltage Source (ICVS)
r
m
(ohms)
v
o
/i
in
VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary
Noninverting Configuration
+
_
v
in
+
+
-
v
O
v
id
i
(+)
i
(-)
i
O
i
F
R
F
R
L
R
1
i
1
v
id
= v
o
/A
OL
Assuming A
OL

v
id
=0
Also, with the
assumption that R
in
=
i
(+)
= i
(-)
= 0
_
v
F
+
_
v
1
+
_
v
L
+
_
i
L
Applying KVL the
following equations
can be found:
v
1
= v
in
v
O
= v
1
+ v
F
= v
in
+ i
F
R
F
This means that,
i
F
= i
1
Therefore: i
F
= v
in
/R
1

Using the equation to the left the output
voltage becomes:
v
o
= v
in
+ v
in
R
F
= v
in
R
F
+ 1
R
1
R
1
VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary
Noninverting Configuration Continued
The closed-loop voltage gain is symbolized by A
v
and is found to be:
A
v
= v
o
= R
F
+ 1
v
in
R
1
The original closed loop gain equation is:
A
v
= A
F
= A
OL
1 + A
OL


Ideally A
OL
, Therefore A
v
= 1

Note: The actual value of A
OL
is given for the specific device and
usually ranges from 50k 500k.
is the feedback factor and by assuming open-loop gain is infinite:
= R
1
R
1
+ R
F

A
F
is the amplifier
gain with
feedback
VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary
Noninverting Configuration Continued
Input and Output Resistance
Ideally, the input resistance for this configuration is infinity, but the a
closer prediction of the actual input resistance can be found with the
following formula:
R
inF
= R
in
(1 + A
OL
) Where R
in
is given for the
specified device. Usually R
in
is
in the M range.
Ideally, the output resistance is zero, but the formula below gives a
more accurate value:
R
oF
= R
o
Where R
o
is given for the

A
OL
+ 1 specified device. Usually R
o
is in
the 10
s
of
s
range.
VCVS (Voltage Amplifier)
Noninverting Configuration Example
+
_
v
in
+
+
-
v
O
v
id
i
(+)
i
(-)
i
O
i
F
R
F
R
L
R
1
i
1
_
v
F
+
_
v
1
+
_
v
L
+
_
i
L
Given: v
in
= 0.6V, R
F
= 200 k
R
1
= 2 k , A
OL
= 400k
R
in
= 8 M , R
o
= 60
Find: v
o
, i
F
, A
v
, , R
inF
and R
oF
Solution:
v
o
= v
in
+ v
in
R
F
= 0.6 + 0.6*2x10
5
= 60.6 V i
F
= v
in
= 0.6 = 0.3 mA
R
1
2000 R
1
2000
A
v
= R
F
+ 1 = 2x10
5
+ 1 = 101 = 1 = 1 = 9.9x10
-3
R
1
2000 A
OL
101
R
inF
= R
in
(1 + A
OL
) = 8x10
6
(1 + 9.9x10
-3
*4x10
5
) = 3.1688x10
10

R
oF
= R
o
= 60

= 0.015

A
OL
+ 1 9.9x10
-3
*4x10
5
+ 1
VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary
Inverting Configuration
+
_
R
L
v
O
+
-
v
in
+
_
R
1 i
1
R
F i
F
The same
assumptions used to
find the equations for
the noninverting
configuration are
also used for the
inverting
configuration.
General Equations:
i
1
= v
in
/R
1

i
F
= i
1

v
o
= -i
F
R
F
= -v
in
R
F
/R
1
A
v
= R
F
/R
1
= R
1
/R
F
Input and Output Resistance
Ideally, the input resistance for this configuration is equivalent to R
1
.
However, the actual value of the input resistance is given by the
following formula:
R
in
= R
1
+ R
F
1 + A
OL

Ideally, the output resistance is zero, but the formula below gives a
more accurate value:
R
oF
= R
o
1 + A
OL


Note: = R
1
This is different from the equation used

R
1
+ R
F
on the previous slide, which can be confusing.

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary
Inverting Configuration Continued
VCVS (Voltage Amplifier)
Inverting Configuration Example
+
_
R
L
+
-
v
in
+
_
R
1
i
1
R
F i
F
Given: v
in
= 0.6 V, R
F
= 20 k
R
1
= 2 k , A
OL
= 400k
R
in
= 8 M , R
o
= 60
Find: v
o
, i
F
, A
v
, , R
inF
and R
oF
v
O
Solution:
v
o
= -i
F
R
F
= -v
in
R
F
/R
1
= -(0.6*20,000)/2000 = 12 V
i
F
= i
1
= v
in
/R
1
= 1 / 2000 = 0.5 mA
A
v
= R
F
/R
1
= 20,000 / 2000 = 10 = R
1
/R
F
= 2000 / 20,000 = 0.1
R
in
= R
1
+ R
F
= 2000 + 20,000 = 2,000.05
1 + A
OL
1 + 400,000
R
oF
= R
o
= 60

= 1.67 m

1 + A
OL
1 + 0.09*400,000

Note: is 0.09 because using
different formula than above
ICIS (Current Amplifier) Summary
Not commonly done using operational amplifiers
+
_
Load
i
in
i
L
Similar to the voltage
follower shown below:
Both these amplifiers have
unity gain:
A
v
= A
i
= 1
+
_
i
in
= i
L

v
in
= v
o

v
in
+
_ +
-
v
O
Voltage Follower
1 Possible
ICIS
Operational
Amplifier
Application
VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary
Voltage to Current Converter
+
_
Load
i
L
R
1 i
1
v
in
+
_
OR
+
_
Load
i
L
R
1 i
1
v
in
+
_
v
in
+
_
General Equations:
i
L
= i
1
= v
1
/R
1
v
1
= v
in

The transconductance, g
m
= i
o
/v
in
= 1/R
1

Therefore, i
L
= i
1
= v
in
/R
1
= g
m
v
in
The maximum load resistance is determined by:
R
L(max)
= v
o(max)
/i
L
VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier)
Voltage to Current Converter Example
+
_
Load
i
L
R
1 i
1
v
in
+
_
Given: v
in
= 2 V, R
1
= 2 k
v
o(max)
= 10 V
Find: i
L
, g
m
and R
L(max)
Solution:
i
L
= i
1
= v
in
/R
1
= 2 / 2000 = 1 mA
g
m
= i
o
/v
in
= 1/R
1
= 1 / 2000 = 0.5 mS
R
L(max)
= v
o(max)
/i
L
= 10 V / 1 mA
= 10 k

Note:
If R
L
> R
L(max)
the op amp
will saturate
The output current, i
L
is
independent of the load
resistance.
VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary
Current to Voltage Converter
General Equations:
i
F
= i
in

v
o
= -i
F
R
F

r
m
= v
o
/i
in
= R
F
+
_
i
F
i
in
R
F
v
O
+
-
VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary
Current to Voltage Converter
Transresistance Amplifiers are used for low-power
applications to produce an output voltage proportional to
the input current.
Photodiodes and Phototransistors, which are used in the
production of solar power are commonly modeled as
current sources.
Current to Voltage Converters can be used to convert these
current sources to more commonly used voltage sources.
VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier)
Current to Voltage Converter Example
+
_
i
F
i
in
R
F
v
O
+
-
Given: i
in
= 10 mA
R
F
= 200
Find: i
F
, v
o
and r
m
Solution:
i
F
= i
in
= 10 mA
v
o
= -i
F
R
F
= 10 mA * 200 = 2 V
r
m
= v
o
/i
in
= R
F
= 200
Power Bandwidth
The maximum frequency at which a sinusoidal output signal can be
produced without causing distortion in the signal.
The power bandwidth, BW
p
is determined using the desired
output signal amplitude and the the slew rate (see next slide)
specifications of the op amp.
BW
p
= SR
2V
o(max)
SR = 2fV
o(max)
where SR is the slew rate

Example:
Given: V
o(max)
= 12 V and SR = 500 kV/s
Find: BW
p
Solution: BW
p
= 500 kV/s = 6.63 kHz
2 * 12 V
Slew Rate
A limitation of the maximum possible rate of change of the
output of an operational amplifier.
As seen on the previous slide, This is derived from:
SR = 2fV
o(max)
SR = v
o
/t
max


Slew Rate is independent of the
closed-loop gain of the op amp.

Example:
Given: SR = 500 kV/s and v
o
= 12 V (Vo(max) = 12V)
Find: The t and f.
Solution: t = vo / SR = (10 V) / (5x10
5
V/s) = 2x10
-5
s
f = SR / 2V
o(max)
= (5x10
5
V/s) / (2 * 12) = 6,630 Hz
f is the
frequency in
Hz
Slew Rate Distortion
v
t
desired output
waveform
actual output
because of
slew rate
limitation

t

v
The picture above shows exactly what happens when the
slew rate limitations are not met and the output of the
operational amplifier is distorted.
SR = v/t = m (slope)

Noise Gain
The noise gain of an amplifier is independent of the amplifiers
configuration (inverting or noninverting)
The noise gain is given by the formula:
A
N
= R
1
+ R
F
R
1

Example 1: Given a noninverting amplifier with the resistance
values, R
1
= 2 k and R
F
= 200 k
Find: The noise gain.
A
N
= 2 k + 200 k = 101 Note: For the
2 k noninverting amplifier A
N
= A
V

Example 2: Given an inverting amplifier with the resistance
values, R
1
= 2 k and R
F
= 20 k
Find: The noise gain.
A
N
= 2 k + 20 k = 12 Note: For the
2 k inverting amplifier A
N
> A
V

Gain-Bandwidth Product
In most operational amplifiers, the open-loop gain begins
dropping off at very low frequencies. Therefore, to make the
op amp useful at higher frequencies, gain is traded for
bandwidth.
The Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBW) is given by:
GBW = A
N
BW

Example: For a 741 op amp, a noise gain of 10 k corresponds
to a bandwidth of ~200 Hz
Find: The GBW
GBW = 10 k * 200 Hz = 2 MHz

Cascaded Amplifiers - Bandwidth
Quite often, one amplifier does not increase the signal enough
and amplifiers are cascaded so the output of one amplifier is the
input to the next.
The amplifiers are matched so:
BW
S
= BW
1
= BW
2
= GBW where, BW
S
is the bandwidth of all
A
N
the cascaded amplifiers and A
N
is
the noise gain
The Total Bandwidth of the Cascaded Amplifiers is:
BW
T
= BW
s
(2
1/n
1)
1/2
where n is the number of amplifiers
that are being cascaded
Example: Cascading 3 Amplifiers with GBW = 1 MHz and A
N
= 15,
Find: The Total Bandwidth, BW
T
BW
S
= 1 MHz / 15 = 66.7 kHz
BW
T
= 66.7 kHz (2
1/3
1)
1/2
= 34 kHz
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) relates to the ability of
the op amp to reject common-mode input voltage. This is very
important because common-mode signals are frequently
encountered in op amp applications.
CMRR = 20 log|A
N
/ A
cm
|
A
cm
= A
N
log
-1
(CMRR / 20)
We solve for A
cm
because Op Amp data sheets list the CMRR value.

The common-mode input voltage is an average of the voltages that
are present at the non-inverting and inverting terminals of the
amplifier.
v
icm
= v
(+)
+ v
(-)
2
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
Example
Given: A 741 op amp with CMRR = 90 dB and a noise gain,
A
N
= 1 k
Find: The common mode gain, A
cm

A
cm
= A
N
= 1000

log
-1
(CMRR / 20) log
-1
(90 / 20)

= 0.0316

It is very desirable for the common-mode gain to be small.

Power Supply Rejection Ratio
One of the reasons op amps are so useful, is that they can
be operated from a wide variety of power supply voltages.
The 741 op amp can be operated from bipolar supplies
ranging from 5V to 18V with out too many changes to
the parameters of the op amp.
The power supply rejection ratio (SVRR) refers to the slight
change in output voltage that occurs when the power
supply of the op amp changes during operation.
SVRR = 20 log (V
s
/ V
o
)
The SVRR value is given for a specified op amp. For the
741 op amp, SVRR = 96 dB over the range 5V to 18V.
Open-Loop Op Amp Characteristics
Table 12.1
1
Device LM741C LF351 OP-07 LH0003 AD549K
Technology
BJT BiFET BJT
Hybrid
BJT
BiFET
A
OL(typ)
200 k 100 k 400 k 40 k 100 k
R
in
2 M 10
12
8 M 100 k
10
13

|| 1 pF
R
o
50 30 60 50 ~100
SR 0.5 V/s 13 V/s 0.3 V/s 70 V/s 3 V/s
CMRR 90 dB 100 dB 110 dB 90 dB 90 dB
Sources
Dailey, Denton. Electronic Devices and Circuits, Discrete and Integrated. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey: 2001. (pp 456-509)

1
Table 12.1: Selected Op Amps and Their Open Loop Characteristics, pg 457
Liou, J.J. and Yuan, J.S. Semiconductor Device Physics and Simulation. Plenum Press,
New York: 1998.
Neamen, Donald. Semiconductor Physics & Devices. Basic Principles. McGraw-Hill,
Boston: 1997. (pp 351-357)

Web Sources
www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0803814.html
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0836717.html
http://people.msoe.edu/~saadat/PSpice230Part3.htm