The document summarizes key aspects of scientific methods used in geology, including the uniformitarianism principle developed by James Hutton and Charles Lyell. It describes how geologists observe phenomena on Earth, develop hypotheses to explain them, test hypotheses through repeatable experiments or observations, make conclusions supported by math/statistics, and publish/discuss results. The uniformitarianism principle states that past geological processes were similar to modern ones and the present provides insight into the past.
The document summarizes key aspects of scientific methods used in geology, including the uniformitarianism principle developed by James Hutton and Charles Lyell. It describes how geologists observe phenomena on Earth, develop hypotheses to explain them, test hypotheses through repeatable experiments or observations, make conclusions supported by math/statistics, and publish/discuss results. The uniformitarianism principle states that past geological processes were similar to modern ones and the present provides insight into the past.
The document summarizes key aspects of scientific methods used in geology, including the uniformitarianism principle developed by James Hutton and Charles Lyell. It describes how geologists observe phenomena on Earth, develop hypotheses to explain them, test hypotheses through repeatable experiments or observations, make conclusions supported by math/statistics, and publish/discuss results. The uniformitarianism principle states that past geological processes were similar to modern ones and the present provides insight into the past.
Develop most probable explanation (Hypothesis) Determine how to test explanation Not often lab experiments as other sciences Must be repeatable with only on independent variable Often test multiple hypothesis Make conclusion (Math and statistics supported) Publish and discuss results with other Repeat
Principle of Uniformitarianism
James Hutton (1726-97)
Charles Lyell 1797-1875
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10c.html Past geologic processes still govern today Present is key to past Lyell argued that processes and rates were constant Influenced Darwin and biology. Rates now considered to vary. Contradicted creationism Ussher's 6016 year old earth Two Conceptions of Earth History: Catastrophism Great Effects Require Great Causes Earth History Dominated by Huge Events THE FLOOD Uniformitarianism Processes and the results do not change over time or space; Earth History Dominated by Small-scale Events Typical of the Present. Catastrophes happen but are rare Uniformitarianism Continuity of Cause and Effect Apply Cause and Effect to Future - Prediction Apply Cause and Effect to Present Understand hazards Apply Cause and Effect to Past hISTORY The Present is the Key to the Past The Earth is the key to the Universe Lithosphere Rocky sphere 100km thick crust + Upper mantle
Asthenosphere weak sphere Next 350 km
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip /dynamic/Vigil.html Types of Plate Boundaries Terminology Diagram shows the location of the key terms that explain how plate tectonics works. Internal energy of earth drives plate tectonic Transferred by conduction and convection of heat The Interior of Earth Direct evidence? Drilling has not penetrated the upper mantle. Seismic waves are indirect evidence. Molten material sampled only on the surface. Energy to Move Plates Definitions - Mineral Minerals are the naturally occurring chemical elements or compounds, formed by inorganic processes, with an ordered internal arrangement or pattern for its atoms, that possess a definite, chemical composition or range of composition.
Identifying Minerals using Diagnostic Characteristics 1. Crystal Form orderly arrangement of atoms. Maybe regular or distorted. 2. Luster quality of light reflected from the surface. Metallic appearance of metals regardless of color Nonmetallic glassy, pearly, silky, earthy Submetallic partially metallic 3. Color unreliable as a diagnostic indicator because impurities create a variety of colors. Sulfur, however, is always yellow. 4. Streak color in powdered form. Metallic is dark and dense. 5. Hardness the Mohs scale is 1-10 with 1 being the softest and 10 the hardest. Talc/gypsum/calcite/fluorite/apatite/orthoclase/ quartz/topaz/corundum/diamond Fingernail (2.5); penny (3.0); glass (5.5) 6. Cleavage tendency to break along lines of weakness. Surface of break is ALWAYS smooth. 7. Fracture if a mineral does not cleave, it will break into a curved surface or fracture. Most minerals fracture in an irregularly fashion. 8. Specific gravity ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water. Galena = 7.5; gold (24 carat) = 20 Ionic vs Covalent Bonding
Ionic: electron(s) leave one atom & gained by another atom to satisfy both atoms octets This results in the formation of ions. The resulting opposite charges attract each other. Covalent: electrons are shared by two or more atoms to satisfy need to have clean outer electron shells. Other bond types
Metallic electrons flow freely through mass of atoms
Van der Waal forces Very weak bond caused by slight electron orbital imbalances
All metals = metallic bond Nonmetals and Metals = ionic bond All nonmetals = covalent bond Element Abundance in Crust Oxygen 46.6% by weight in the crust Silicon 27.7% Aluminum 8.1% Iron 5.0% Calcium 3.6% Sodium 2.8% Potassium 2.6% Magnesium 2.1% All others 1.5%
O & Si = 75% of crustal rocks by weight
The Key to Buying Diamonds REMEMBER GRAPHITE and DIAMONDS ARE both CARBON Color colorless to shades of yellow Clarity no internal flaws to internal flaws Carat the size of the diamond Cut the way it reflects light back to the observer. Shape can also vary based upon personal preferences. Shop for price but remember to compare exactly the same characteristics from store to store. Color The scale goes from D (exceptional white color) to S-Z which is yellow or some other color. Minerals: the building blocks of rocks Rock consolidated or poorly consolidated aggregates of one or more minerals, glass, or solidified organic matter (coal) that covers a significant part of the crust. Three classes or categories: Igneous crystallized from molten or partially molten material Sedimentary fragments of pre-existing rock and rocks that were formed from chemical or biological action. Metamorphic changed by heat, fluids, and pressure These categories are based upon the processes that form the rock.
IGNEOUS Rocks Magma molten material within Earth Large crystals result from slow cooling (phaneritic texture); a large mass of such rock is a Batholith; normally a granite. Lava molten material on the surface Fine-grained with restricted crystal growth (aphanitic texture) Igneous rock texture determined by where it cools and solidifies and therefore how FAST PHANERITIC - LARGE GRAIN CRYSTALS A PHANERITIC NOT (A) LARGE GRAIN OR CRYSTALS IGNEOUS Rocks Pumice has the composition of glass but does not look glassy. Formed on the surface cooled rapidly. Steam driven out of obsidian contributes to bubbles will float Dental hygienists use it to polish teeth
Volcanic Plutonic SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sediment is a particulate derived from physical or chemical weathering of material on the crust or from certain organic processes. The sediment can be transported and re- deposited by gravity, streams, glaciers, wind and/or waves. It may also be residual. (rubble left behind) Sediments are turned to stone by deep burial (pressure) or cementation or both. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks The diagram shows how gravels, sand, silt and clay go through various processes to become rock. Texture is a definitive property in identification.
As we will discuss in detail later:
Two ways rocks are broken down: 1) Dissolve chemically 2) Physical break-up
The products of the physical break- down get compacted and cemented clastic sedimentary rocks : Shales Sandstones Siltstones
The rock material dissolved in water precipitates out to form chemical sedimentary rock Limestones Salt formations Gypsium Metamorphic Rocks Coarsely foliated gneiss formed under intense heat and pressure.
Formed within the Earths crust, never on the surface. Neptunist view Cold early earth Rocks form by chemical precipitation from water Leader A. Werner: (1740-1817)- German mining academy Volcanoes aberration coal fired Succession of layers, order of layers Vulcanism Also Stratified Formations above Primitive Rock (basalt and granite) Identified igneous and metamorphic rocks caused by HOT earth Even sedimentary rock fused by heat, not chemically cemented French volcanic origin basalt flows turned the day Neptunist support Principle of Original Horizontality Vulcanist cross cutting Rock Cycle This could go on forever If you can describe this chart well, you will do well on the first exam Definition IGNEOUS ROCK - An aggregate of minerals crystallized from molten rock (magma). Major distinctions in rock type are based on two criteria: 1) the chemical composition of the magma (mafic to felsic) and 2) the environment of magma emplacement (plutonic or intrusive vs. volcanic or extrusive) http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/magmatyp.html Igneous Rock-forming Minerals crystallized from Various Magma Compositions Igneous Rock Texture Fine grain rapid cooling (Aphanitic) At surface Coarse grain slow, in crust cooling (Phanitic) Glassy super fast cooling Porphyritic two step crystallization, slow then fast
http://geowww.geo.tcu.edu/faculty/donovan/10113%20igneous%20class%20rev/photoalb um/pages/bowen%27s%20reaction%20series_jpg.htm Types of Magma Eruptions Fissures Columbia & Snake River Basalt basins - 8.5 km Iceland (USGS photo - Mid-ocean ridges Decca plateau 2.5 MM km-sq Magma Eruptions Fissures Shield Volcano pure basalt Hawaii
Mauna Kea 13,795 Haleakala 10,023 (Maui) Mauna Loa 13,677 Water depth > 16,000 Magma Eruptions Fissures Shield Volcano pure basalt Hawaii Cinder Cone clastic debris Capulin (NM) Pilot Knob
Paricutn, Mexico 1946 USGS photo March 1944 Magma Eruptions Fissures Shield volcanoes Cinder Cones Composite volcanoes Mt St. Helens 1980 Before 1980 Most beautiful and peaceful Forecast in 1975 North exploded May 18, 1980 3 cubic km avalanche and vertical explosion Blast destroyed everything in path for 16 to 25km Human deaths 25 km away Pyroclastic debris flow (1600 degree F) -160 km/hr Toutle River wiped out, 42 MM cubic m of debris in Columbia Ashes tracked around the world
Non-extrusive magma Batholiths Enchanted Rock Laccoliths Dikes Zimbabwe 375 miles 6 miles wide Sills nuweb.neu.edu Laccolith Big Bend N.P Exposed dike Shiprock N. Ultra Mafic and Mafic Basaltic Very hot mix Low viscosity High melting point minerals Felsic and Intermediate Andestic and granitic High viscosity Lower Temperature, Lots of water and gas Do differences in magma explain different kinds of volcanic forms? http://www.google.com/url?q=http://activity.ntsec.gov.tw/space/EN/show.asp%3FX H50&ust=1346542391469504&usg=AFQjCNHcDdLk2Jph6cvbXXDeRiRF2pxwVw The three kinds of magma: Basaltic - hottest , deepest, and therefore includes the higher melting point minerals like olivine and calcium plagioclase. Andesite re-melted crust in the subduction zone Rhyolite Lower temperature melting of silica crust, often with melting points depressed by water introduced from below. Heat also from magmas below 04_22.JPG Sedimentary rocks Almost 90% of earth crust - igneous rocks Sediments and Sedimentary rock- 5% of outer 16km of Earth but 75% of surface Fluid deposited minerals that lithified 99% shale, limestone, or sandstone 46% 22% 32% Clay CaCO3 SiO2 Sedimentary rocks form from weathered, transported and deposited sediments Summary Physical Weathering
Frost action
Wetting and drying
Action of plants and animals
Loss of overlying rock and soil EXFOLIATION Chemical Weathering Rocks minerals are changed into different substances.
Water and water vapor are important agents of chemical weathering.
WATER and its bi-polar covalent bond will eventually wear everything down
Example: Formation of clay minerals from feldspar Types of Chemical Weathering Results mainly from the action of rainwater, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acids of plant decay on rocks.
Dissolves
Oxidizes
Hydrolysis reactions
Agents - Chemical Weathering Rainwater dissolving oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acids of plant decay. Carbon dioxide dissolves easily in water. Carried through the ground to the bedrock. Dissolves the ionic bonded minerals like rock salt, calcite, (limestone, dolomite), and gypsum Agents of Chemical Weathering Has the greatest effect on calcite than any other mineral. It dissolves it completely, with no clay left over. Hydrolysis of Igneous Rocks Chemical Weathering The chemical reaction of water with other substances is called hydrolysis.
This attacks minerals in our igneous rocks like :Feldspar
Common Clay Type Oxidation of Igneous Rocks Chemical Weathering The chemical reaction of oxygen with other substances is called oxidation. Iron-bearing minerals are the ones most easily attacked by oxygen These include Magnetite Pyrite Dark-colored ferromagnesian silicates OLIVINE AMPHIBOLE PYROXINE
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Chemical weathering Igneous Rocks Higher melting point materials react first: Iron of mafic minerals oxidizes to form Limonite and clays Felsic material hydrolizes to form clays The silicon-dioxide based materials resist chemical attack High melting point igneous rocks (from our basaltic and intermediate magmas) mostly weather to clays and oxides Low melting point igneous rocks weather physically to sands
Deposition Settling (coming to rest) of transported material Accumulation of chemical or organic sediments, typically in water Environment of deposition is the location in which deposition occurs Deep sea floor Beach Desert dunes River channel Lake bottom From sediment to sedimentary rockiment to Sedimentary Rock Preservation By burial with additional sediments, in order to become a sedimentary rock Lithification General term for processes converting loose sediment into sedimentary rock Combination of compaction and cementation From Sediment to Sedimentary Rock Cementation: Cementing material is usually; Secondary Silica (Siliceous cement), Calcium carbonate (Carbonate cement), Iron rich (ferruginous cement) Cement itself to some extent is the source of weakness in the sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary Rocks Clastic Rocks Made of Fragments Deposited by Water (Most Common) Wind Glacial Action Gravity
Sediment Sizes and Clastic Rock Types Sedimentary rocks made of silt- and clay-sized particles are collectively called mudrocks, and are the most abundant sedimentary rocks.
Rock Type Sediment Grain Size Shale Clay less than 0.001 mm Siltstone Silt .001-0.1 mm Sandstone Sand .01-1 mm Conglomerate Gravel 1mm + Chemical Sediments Evaporites -Water Soluble Halite Gypsum Calcite
Precipitates Gypsum Limestone Iron Formations Alteration After Deposition Dolomite Biogenic Sediments Limestone - Shells, Reefs, Etc. Organic Remains Coal Petroleum Sediment Sediment - loose, solid particles originating from: Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks Chemical precipitation from solution, including secretion by organisms in water Classified by particle size Boulder - >256 mm Cobble - 64 to 256 mm Pebble - 2 to 64 mm Sand - 1/16 to 2 mm Silt - 1/256 to 1/16 mm Clay - <1/256 mm Gravel Types of Sedimentary Rocks Detrital (clastic) sedimentary rocks Most common sedimentary rock type Form from cemented sediment grains that come from pre-existing rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks Have crystalline textures Form by precipitation of minerals from solution Organic sedimentary rocks Accumulate from remains of organisms
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Breccia and Conglomerate Coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rocks Sedimentary breccia composed of coarse, angular rock fragments cemented together Conglomerate composed of rounded gravel cemented together
Sandstone Medium-grained clastic sedimentary rock Types determined by composition Quartz sandstone - >90% quartz grains Arkose - mostly feldspar and quartz grains Graywacke - sand grains surrounded by dark, fine-grained matrix, often clay-rich
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Shale Fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock Splits into thin layers (fissile) Silt- and clay-sized grains Sediment deposited in lake bottoms, river deltas, floodplains, and on deep ocean floor
Siltstone Slightly coarser-grained than shales Lacks fissility Claystone Predominantly clay-sized grains; non-fissile Mudstone Silt- and clay-sized grains; massive/blocky
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Carbonates Contain CO 3 as part of their chemical composition Limestone is composed mainly of calcite Most are biochemical, but can be inorganic Often contain easily recognizable fossils Chemical alteration of limestone in Mg-rich water solutions can produce dolomite
Chert Hard, compact, fine-grained, formed almost entirely of silica Can occur as layers or as lumpy nodules within other sedimentary rocks, especially limestones Evaporites Form from evaporating saline waters (lake, ocean) Common examples are rock gypsum, rock salt Organics in Sedimentary Rocks Coal Sedimentary rock forming from compaction of partially decayed plant material Organic material deposited in water with low oxygen content (i.e., stagnant)
Oil and natural gas Originate from organic matter in marine sediment Subsurface cooking can change organic solids to oil and natural gas Can accumulate in porous overlying rocks Intermediate and deep water deposition Little sediment makes off the continental shelf except: What collects in canyon and then slides off Turbidity currents Carbonate re-dissolves at depth (6000) No clams, corals, foraminiferans, etc. Only atmospheric fall out in abyss
Sedimentary Basins and Energy Basins form: Seafloor spreading both sides basins Subducting margins also Basins drive selves Sediment begets sinking Intracratonic basins Formation of Oil and Gas Microscopic plankton animal and plant Live in upper water column, remains sink Deposit in basin in anaerobic environment Buried by other sediments Anaerobic degradation, release CH4 and CO2 More deposition Hotter and hotter, more pressure First cook kerogen Formation of Oil and Gas (2) Heat and pressure remove water and other compounds formed in degradation of organics Kerogen percursor to oil and gas If 1-3 km deep, 100- 200 C Crack to smaller molecules Oil Window Pressure causes natural fracking Oil and gas float up in water saturated rock Trapped in reservoir By trap Reservoirs and Traps- Traditional Reservoirs High porosity, high permeability Limestone Dolomite Sandstones Traps - Low permeability shales, siltstones, halite Layers - stratigraphy Anticlines Straight bedding Pinch out Rock Cycle Simplified Start with molten magma heavy in silicates or ions of calcium and carbonate in water Allow magma to cool and crystalize into igneous minerals and rocks Or promote biochemical or straight chemical combination of calcium and carbonate to form calcite Expose igneous rocks to water and let them deteriorate to small pieces and clay minerals Gather small pieces, clays, and calcites and cement together into sedimentary rocks OPTIONAL STEP To any rock created above, raise to high temperatures and pressure, allowing re-crystallization into igneous minerals or marble (from calcite) WARNING, if temperatures get too high , you melt the rock and start over as magma
Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks High temperatures can change chemical structure of minerals Pressure + heat flattened crystals and create characteristic foliation Slaty cleavage Increasing Phyllitic cleavage degree of Schistose metamorphism Gneissic structure Metamorphic rocks are not all foliated Step 1 - Metamorphism of Shale Shale: Fine grained Clay (and quartz) minerals stable under atmospheric T&P Compacted by overburden Laminated sheets Water bound in crystalline structure of clay Increase pressure and temperature create Slate Clays converted to mica and chlorite - fine grained plates Water expelled from crystalline structure of clay
New minerals stable Slaty Cleavage due to realignment of platy minerals Result of Low Grade Metamorphism - Slate POOL TABLES and ROOF SHINGLES
Heat Slate to Higher Temperature and Pressure More Grow more and larger grains of Mica and quartz All clays convert to mica Slaty cleavage takes on a sheen surface of sheets of mica aligned with stresses Medium-Grade Metamorphism Phyllite
Of mica Still more heat and pressure on Phyllite Create larger grains of Mica and Quartz Garnets, amphibole and biotite may be created
Schistosity created by alignment of platy and needle-like minerals Medium to High-Grade Metamorphism Schist
Still hotter temperature on Schist OR Granite
Create course grained Feldspar, Quartz, Amphibole, Biotite Less mica or amphibole because of dehydration Minerals tend to migrate into separate parallel bands of dark and light High-Grade Metamorphism Gneiss
Fig 7.12 Cook the Gneiss Even Hotter Silica rich minerals melt first (quartz and feldspar) Forming silicic magma Injected into fractures resulting in silicic veins if intrusive igneous rock Very High-Grade Metamorphism and partial melting Migmatite Fig 7.12 Metamorphic Rocks of other Parent Rocks Limestone Marble
Bioclastic calcite Crystalline calcite Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks of other Parent Rocks Quartz Sandstone Quartzite
Granular quartz Crystalline quartz Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks of other Parent Rocks Basalt Amphibole Schist Granite Gneiss
Uniform texture Foliation (schistosity and gneissic banding) Types of metamorphic rocks Slate Shale Low grade Phyllite Sheen, more mica, higher grade Schist Most abundant mineral first name lot around Enchanted Rock Gneiss Coarse grained high grade regional - granite or gabbro Marble Limestone or dolostone, contact or regional Quartzite non-foliated quartz sandstone
Regional Metamorphic Environments Regional metamorphism occurs where rocks are squeezed between two converging lithospheric plates during mountain building. DEEPEST, HOTTEST and LARGEST AREA Contact Metamorphic Environment There are a number of environments in which metamorphism occurs. Most are in the vicinity of plate margins, and many are associated with igneous activity. Contact or thermal metamorphism occurs when rocks immediately surrounding a molten igneous body are baked and therefore altered from their original state. Hydrothermal Metamorphic Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs when hot fluids circulate through fissures and cracks that develop in rock. This hot fluid chemically alters rocks and is closely related to igneous activity. Frac Fluid Components Water Sand or other proppant Additives Friction reducer Gel Scale inhibitor Biocide HCl
Coal Basins also often contain coal Origin Land based plants Location Swampy edges of basins Buried in water, no oxygen Buried deeper and deeper Increased pressure and temp
Fuel or mulch 75% Water Coal (3) Bury deeper More pressure More heat More time Soft brown coal or lignite 7200-9900 Btu/ton No free cellulose Often low sulfur content
Coal (4) Keep pressure on Bituminous coal
Real coal No plant structure 12,000 Btu/ton 10% water Often higher Sulfur King Coal Colliding continental plates drive swamp sediments really deep Eventually get ANTHRACITE King Coal 15,500 Btu/ton Not much left Deep mines 18 th Century Observation John Hutton challenged the Church on the age of 6,000 yrs. He saw fossils but also saw Earth as an engine of change volcanoes added material, erosion stripped it away. Relative Time and Relative Order Original Horizontality Superposition Lateral continuity Cross-cutting relationships Inclusions Unconformities Principle of Original Horizontality Layers of sediment deposited in horizontal position Gravity Fluid deposition Flat rock layers have not been disturbed Stenos (1638-1687) First Law Principle of Original Continuity Sediments originally cover large areas up to a firm boundary in horizontal sheets Depositional environments large and reasonably uniform Follow layers up the entire length of Grand Canyon Stenos second contribution Age dating concepts Superposition within a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary or volcanic rocks, oldest rocks are at the bottom and youngest at the top .young upward oldest youngest Lateral Continuity original sedimentary layers extend laterally until they thin at edges continue continue Principle of Cross-cutting Principle of cross-cutting relationships Intrusions can only be deposited in layers already there
In example to right, the Dikes can only cut through existing rock Cross-cutting Relationships A disrupted pattern is older than the cause of the disruption Age dating relationships Relative Age Dating Concepts inclusions fragments of other rocks contained in a body of rock must be older than the host rock e.g. 1) xenoliths in granite are older than granite and 2) pieces of rock in conglomerate are older than conglomerate Age dating concepts Unconformities A contact between sedimentary formations that represents a gap in the geologic record -- gap represented is variable Conformity Relatively continuous deposition Deposition of a sequence of parallel layers Contacts between formations do not represent significant amounts of time from: http://www.elohi.com/photo/grandcanyon Conformity Types of unconformities Angular unconformity Contact separates overlying younger layers from tilted older layers Sequence of layers is not parallel Contacts between formations may represent significant amounts of time angular unconformity Types of unconformities
Nonconformity Strata deposited on older crystalline (metamorphic/igneous) rock Erosion surface on igneous/ metamorphic rock covered by sedimentary rocks Large gap in geologic record Nonconformity http://blogs.agu.org/mountainbeltway/2012/02/16/wyler-aerial-tramway- franklin-mountains-texas/ Nonconformity Franklin Mountains near El Paso - 500 million years missing Nonconformity Flat sedimentary rocks on eroded igneous or metamorphic rock Paraconformity Overlaying and underlaying rocks relatively parallel However erosion took place in-between Little or no evidence of erosion Somewhat unusual and hard to explain Types of unconformities Disconformity Beds (formations) are parallel Sequence of layers is parallel Contacts between may represent significant amounts of time Difficult to recognize Disconformity Parallel bedding surfaces of sedimentary rocks Erosional or non- depositional surface between Another Geologic Law Faunal Succession observed chronological sequence of life-forms can be used to observe chronological sequences of all life forms through geologic time. Age of rocks can be told from life forms within (fossils). Relative time vs. Absolute time Study of timing of geologic events and processes is called Geochronology Relative Time Order of events or objects from first (oldest) to last (youngest) - She is older than he is; She was born first and he was born last Age of events or objects expressed numerically She is twenty-one and he is nineteen Absolute Time what events occur? angular unconformity what events occur? Nonconformity Divisions of Geologic Time
Life On Earth Is A Constant Battle Between The Tectonic Forces That Want To Make The Earth LUMPY and The Geomorphic Agents That Want To Make The Earth SMOOTH