Philippine Paramedical and Technical School Incorporated - Cebu

PHILIPPINE PARAMEDICAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOL INCORPORATED - CEBU
Anatomy of the Cell

Cell Structure and Their

Functions
• Functions of the Cell
– Basic unit of life
– Protection and support
– Movement
– Communication
– Cell metabolism and energy release
– Inheritance
3 Main Regions of a Cell

Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Cell Membrane
• Cell membrane or plasma
membrane-the outermost
component of a cell
• The structure of plasma
membrane contains 2 lipids
(fat) layers arranged tail to
tail in which protein
molecules float
How substances move across

the Plasma Membrane
• Substances need to pass through the

membrane to enter or leave the cell
and they do so in a number of ways.
Some of these processes require no
energy i.e. they are passive, while
others require energy i.e. they are
active.
Passive processes include:

a) diffusion and
b) osmosis,
while active processes include:
c) active transport,
d) phagocytosis,
e) pinocytosis and
f) exocytosis.
Movement through cell

membrane: Diffusion
• Tendency for solutes
to move from an area
of higher
concentration to an
area of lower
concentration of that
solute in a solution
Movement through cell

membrane
• Mediated Transport Mechanisms
– Facilitated diffusion
>moves substances from a higher to lower
concentration of that substance
– Active transport
>moves substances from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher concentration
against a concentration gradient
– Secondary active transport
>active transport one substance establishing a
concentration gradient
Movement through cell membrane:

Osmosis
• Diffusion of
water across a
selectively
permeable
membrane
from a region
of higher
water
concentration
to one of lower
water
concentration
Active transport
• When a substance is transported from a
low concentration to a high concentration
i.e. uphill against the concentration
gradient, energy has to be used. This is
called active transport.
• Active transport is important in
maintaining different concentrations of the
ions sodium and potassium on either side
of the nerve cell membrane.
• It is also important for removing valuable
molecules such as glucose, amino acids
and sodium ions from the urine.
Phagocytosis
• Phagocytosis is sometimes called
“cell eating”.
• It is a process that requires energy
and is used by cells to move solid
particles like bacteria across the
plasma membrane.
• Finger-like projections from the
plasma membrane surround the
bacteria and engulf them.
• Once within the cell, enzymes

produced by the lysosomes of the cell
(described later) destroy the
bacteria.
• The destruction of bacteria and other
foreign substance by white blood cells
by the process of phagocytosis is a
vital part of the defense mechanisms
of the body.
Pinocytosis
• Pinocytosis or “cell drinking” is a

very similar process to phagocytosis
but is used by cells to move fluids
across the plasma membrane.
• Most cells carry out pinocytosis.
Endocytosis
• Uptake of material through the cell membrane
by the formation of a membrane-bound sac
called a vesicle
• Invaginates to form a vesicle containing the
material to be taken into the cell
• Vesicle is then taken into the cell
Phagocytosis-used for endocytosis when
solid particles are ingested
Pinocytosis-much smalles vesicles are
formed that contain liquid rather than
particles
Exocytosis
• Process within the cell which creates a
membrane-bound sac called secretory
vesicle, which fuses with the cell
membrane and the material in the vesicle
is eliminated from the cell
• Endocytosis is similar to this process but
occurs in an opposite direction however
both require energy in the foto form
vesicles
The Cytoplasm
• Within the plasma
membrane is the
cytoplasm. It consists
of a clear jelly-like fluid
called the
a) cytosol or intracellular
fluid in which
b) cell inclusions
c) organelles and
d) microfilaments and
microtubules are found.
Cytosol
• The cytosol consists
mainly of water in
which various
molecules are
dissolved or
suspended.
• It includes proteins,
fats and
carbohydrates as well
as sodium,
potassium, calcium
and chloride ions.
Cell inclusions
• These are large particles of fat,

glycogen and melanin that have
been produced by the cell.
• They are often large enough to be
seen with the light microscope. For
example the cells of adipose tissue
(as in the insulating fat layer under
the skin) contain fat that takes up
most of the cell.
Organelles
• Nucleus
• Nucleoli and ribosomes
• Rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Secretory vesicles
• Lysosomes and
peroxisomes
• Mitochondria
• Cytoskeleton
• Centrioles
• Cilia, flagella and microvilli
A. Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are tiny
spherical organelles that
make proteins by joining
amino acids together.
Many ribosomes are
found free in the cytosol,
while others are attached
to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
B. Endoplasmic
reticulum
• The endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) is a
network of membranes
that form channels
throughout the cytoplasm
from the nucleus to the
plasma membrane.
Various molecules are
made in the ER and
transported around the
cell in its channels. There
are two types of ER:
smooth ER and rough ER.
• Smooth ER is
where the fats in
the cell are made
and in some cells,
where chemicals
like alcohol,
pesticides and
carcinogenic
molecules are
inactivated.
• The Rough ER has

ribosomes attached
to its surface. The
function of the
Rough ER is
therefore to make
proteins that are
modified stored and
transported by the
ER
C. Mitochondria
• (singular
mitochondrion) are
oval or rod shaped
organelles scattered
throughout the
cytoplasm. They
consist of two
membranes, the inner
one of which is folded
to increase its surface
area.
D. Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi bodies in a cell
together make up the Golgi
apparatus.
• Golgi bodies are found near
the nucleus and consist of
flattened membranes
stacked on top of each other
rather like a pile of plates
• It modifies and sorts the
proteins and fats made by
the ER, then surrounds
them in a membrane as
vesicles so they can be
moved to other parts of the
cell.
E. Lysosomes
• are large vesicles that contain
digestive enzymes.
• These break down bacteria
and other substances that are
brought into the cell by
phagocytosis or pinocytosis.
• also digest worn-out or
damaged organelles, the
components of which can then
be recycled by the cell to make
new structures.
Microfilaments And
•
Microtubules
Some cells can
move and change
shape and
organelles and
chemicals are
moved around the
cell. Threadlike
structures called
microfilaments
and microtubules
that can contract
are responsible for
this movement.
Microfilaments And
Microtubules
• These structures also form the projections from
the plasma membrane known as flagella
(singular flagellum) as in the sperm tail, and
cilia found lining the respiratory tract and used
to remove mucus that has trapped dust
particles.
• Microtubules also form the pair of cylindrical
structures called centrioles found near the
nucleus. These help organise the spindle used in
cell division.
The Nucleus
• The nucleus is the
headquarters of
the cell.
• It regulates all cell
activity.
• It consists of a
nuclear envelope,
(the outer
membrane) and
nucleoplasm.
• In the nucleoplasm
you can see
chromatin and the
nucleolus.
• Gene containing
• The genetic material or
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
= the blue print that contains all instructions
needed for building the whole body
= has instructions for building proteins
= necessary for cell production
• A cell that has lost or ejected its
nucleus (for whatever reason) is
programmed only to die.
• The shape of the nucleus conforms
the shape of the cell
3 Distinct Region/Structure
of a Nucleus
• The Nuclear Envelop
• Nucleoli
• Chromatin
The Nuclear Envelope

• Double membrane barrier of the
nucleus
• Between the two membranes is a
fluid field moat or a space
• The nuclear envelope is selectively
permeable
• It encloses a jelly like fluid called
nucleoplasm in which the nuclei and
the chromatin are suspended
The Nucleoli
• Small, dark-staining, essentially
round bodies
• Sites where ribosomes are assembles
= the ribosomes, which eventually
migrate into the cytoplasm, serves
as the actual sites of protein
synthesis
Chromatin
• When a cell is not dividing, its DNA is
combined with Protein and gorms of
loose network of bumpy threads
called chromatin
Whole-cell Activity
• Cell metabolism – sum of all the chemical
reactions in the cell
• Protein synthesis – production of protein
through transcription and translation
• Cell Division – formation of 2 daughter
cells from a single parent cell
• Differentiation – process by which cells
develop specialized structures and
functions
Mitosis
• Interphase
>time between cell divisions
• Prophase
>chormatin condenses into chromosomes
• Metaphase
>chromosomes align in the center in association
with the spindle fibers
• Anaphase
>chromatids separate to form 2 sets of
chromosomes;chromosomes assisted by spindle
fibers move toward centrioles
• Telophase
>chromosomes disperse, and cytoplasm begins to
divide to form 2 cells
Cellular Aspects of Aging

• Cellular clock
>after a certain passage of time or a number of cell
division results in death of a given line
• Death genes
>there are “death genes” which turn on late in life
• DNA damage
>resulting in cell degeneration and death
• Free radicals
>susceptible to damage, mutations and ultimately
cell damage
• Mitchondrial damage
>result in loss of proteins critical to mitochondrial
function
CHAPTER 1: HISTOLOGY TISSUES
Mitosis
Process by which a cell divides and produces two daughter cell from a single
parent cell.
Stages of Mitosis
The process of mitosis is divided into 6 stages. The Interphase, Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and cytokinasis. At Interphase, there is
only one cell, but after cytokinasis there are two identical cells. Before
mitosis can take place, the cell need to store enough energy to drive the
chemical processes during the cell division. During this period of time, there
is intense cellular activity. The cell grows in size. The length of the grow
phase varies between a few hours to a few months. We the cell has stored
enough energy, it is ready to divide itself.
1. Interphase
DNA has replicated, but has not formed the condensed structure of
chromosome. They remain as loosely coiled chromatin. The nuclear
membrane is still to protect the DNA molecules from undergoing
mutation.
Chromatin - The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome. When the
cell is not dividing, chromatin exists as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light
microscope.
2. Prophase
The DNA molecules progressively shorten and condense by coiling, to
form chromosomes. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus are no longer
visible. The spindle apparatus has migrate to opposite poles of the cell
Nucleolus - noo-KLEE-oh-lus) (plural, nucleoli) A specialized structure in the nucleus,

formed from various chromosomes and active in the synthesis of ribosomes.
3. Metaphase
The spindle fibres attach themselves to the centromeres of the
chromosomes and align the chromosomes at the equatorial plate.
Centromeres - The constricted region of a chromosome where the two chromatids are
attached.
5. Anaphase
The spindle fibres shorten and the centromere splits, separated sister
chromatids are pulled along behind the centromeres.
sister chromatids - (KROH-muh-tidz) Replicated forms of a chromosome joined

together by the centromere and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II.
6. Cytokinasis
This is the last stage of mitosis. It is the process of splitting the daughter
cells apart. A furrow forms and the cell is pinched in two. Each daughter
cell contains the same number and same quality of chromosomes
Source: http://library.thinkquest.org/
Types of Tissues
Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial tissue covers the whole surface of the body. It is made up of cells
closely packed and ranged in one or more layers. This tissue is specialized to
form the covering or lining of all internal and external body surfaces.
Epithelial tissue that occurs on surfaces on the interior of the body is known
as endothelium. Epithelial cells are packed tightly together, with almost no
intercellular spaces and only a small amount of intercellular substance.
Epithelial tissue, regardless of the type, is usually separated from the
underlying tissue by a thin sheet of connective tissue; basement membrane.
The basement membrane provides structural support for the epithelium and
also binds it to neighboring structures.
Types of Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial tissue can be divided into two groups depending on the number of
layers of which it is composes.
•Epithelial tissue which is only one cell thick is known as simple

epithelium.
•If it is two or more cells thick such as the skin, it is known as stratified
epithelium.
Simple epithelium
Simple epithelium can be subdivided according to the shape and
function of its cells.
Squamous (pavement) epithelium.

Squamous cells have the appearance of thin, flat plates. The shape
of the nucleus usually corresponds to the cell form and help to
identify the type of epithelium. Squamous cells, for example, tend to
have horizontal flattened, elliptical nuclei because of the thin
flattened form of the cell. They form the lining of cavities such as
the mouth, blood vessels, heart and lungs and make up the outer
layers of the skin.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

As their name implies, cuboidal cells are
roughly square or cuboidal in shape. Each cell has a spherical
nucleus in the centre. Cuboidal epithelium is found in glands and in
the lining of the kidney tubules as well as in the ducts of the glands.
They also constitute the germinal epithelium which produces the egg
cells in the female ovary and the sperm cells in the male testes.
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Columnar epithelial cells occur in one or more layers. The cells are
elongated and column-shaped. The nuclei are elongated and are
usually located near the base of the cells. Columnar epithelium
forms the lining of the stomach and intestines. Some columnar cells
are specialized for sensory reception such as in the nose, ears and
the taste buds of the tongue. Goblet cells (unicellular glands) are
found between the columnar epithelial cells of the duodenum. They
secrete mucus or slime, a lubricating substance which keeps the
surface smooth.
Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
These are simple columnar epithelial cells, but in addition, they
posses fine hair-like outgrowths, cilia on their free surfaces. These
cilia are capable of rapid, rhythmic, wavelike beatings in a certain
direction. This movement of the cilia in a certain direction causes
the mucus, which is secreted by the goblet cells, to move (flow or
stream) in that direction. Ciliated epithelium is usually found in
the air passages like the nose. It is also found in the uterus and
Fallopian tubes of females. The movement of the cilia propel the
ovum to the uterus.
Stratified Epithelium
Where body linings have to withstand wear and tear, the epithelia
are composed of several layers of cells and are then called
compound or stratified epithelium. The top cells are flat and
scaly and it may or may not be keratinized (i.e. containing a tough,
resistant protein called keratin). The mammalian skin is an example
of dry, keratinized, stratified epithelium. The lining of the mouth
cavity is an example of an unkeratinized, stratified epithelium.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
• Protection
Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from
mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from
excessive loss of water.
• Sensation
Sensory stimuli penetrate specialized epithelial cells. Specialized
epithelial tissue containing sensory nerve endings is found in the
skin, eyes, ears, nose and on the tongue.
• Secretion
In glands, epithelial tissue is specialized to secrete specific chemical
substances such as enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids.
• Absorption
Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from
the digestion of food.
• Excretion
Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body
and reabsorb needed materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted
from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands.
• Diffusion
Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and
nutrients. Because they form such a thin lining, they are ideal for the
diffusion of gases (e.g. walls of capillaries and lungs).
• Cleaning
Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign
bodies which have entered the air passages.
• Reduces Friction
The smooth, tightly-interlocking, epithelial cells that line the entire
circulatory system reduce friction between the blood and the walls of
the blood vessels.
Source: http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za
Connective Tissues
A material made up of fibers forming a framework and support structure for
body tissues and organs. Connective tissue surrounds many organs. All
connective tissue is derived from mesoderm, the middle germ cell layer in the embryo.
Classification
•Connective tissue proper
•Loose Irregular
•Dense Irregular
•Dense Regular
•Skeletal connective tissues

•Osseous (bone) tissue
•Cartilaginous tissue
•Special varieties of connective tissue
•White adipose
•Brown adipose
•Pigmentary
•Mucous (jelly form)
•Reticular
LOOSE IRREGULAR
Specifics:
cell-rich, poor in intercellular matter (fibers and amorphous matter [ground
substance])
Localization:
forms stroma of many organs, vascular tunica adventitia; lies underneath
epithelia - forms lamina propria of mucous membranes and submucosa, is
abundantly represented among muscle cells and fibers
CELLS
• fibroblasts
Five subtypes:
• Young
• Mature
• fibrocytes
• Myofibroblasts
• fibroclasts
develop from poorly differentiated mesenchymal cells; stellate or spindle-

shaped cells with little cytoplasm; functions - formation of collagen and elastic
fibers, ground substance of connective tissue, synthesis of enzymes digesting
fibers and ground-substance, as collagenase, elastase, hyaluronidase;
elaboration of biologically active substances
• macrophages
descendants of blood monocytes, large cells with round or bean-shaped nuclei
and abundant cytoplasm, rich in lysosomes, phagosomes, irregular
cytoplasmic membrane contour; functions - endocytosis, antigen presentation,
production of a whole host of biologically active factors
• mast cells
develop from a dedicated bone marrow predecessor; large cells, cytoplasm
filled with basophilic granules containing histamine, heparin, serotonin,
chymase, triptase; their function is related to release of granule contents and
to effects of these substances on the organism, to secondary uptake of the
substances, to elaboration of a number of bioactive compounds; mast cell
granules on staining show what is known as metachromasia, i.e. they change
color of the dye
• adventitious cells
come from mesenchyme, represent a poorly differentiated component of the
latter; they have numerous cytoplasmic membrane processes
• pericytes
develop from poorly differentiated mesenchymal cells; cells of basal layer in
capillaries
• endothelial cells
are formed from poorly differentiated mesenchymal cells, line from the inside
all of the blood vessels and lymphatics; produce many bioactive substances
• pigmentary cells
come from neural crest, contain a pigment called melanin in their cytoplasm
• adipose cells develop from non-differentiated cells of mesenchyme; structure
and function are discussed later
• plasma cells
are from the B cell lineage, produce antibodies, are characterized by well-
developed rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex in cytoplasm; Golgi
complex is pale on regular staining - perinuclear halo
• leukocytes
leukocytes that left circulation
INTERCELLULAR MATTER
FIBERS:
•collagen fibers are composed of a protein collagen. Structure - five levels of
organization:
1. polypeptide chain, consists of repeating sequences of 3 amino acids, 2 of
them are proline or lysine and glycine, and the 3rd - any other
2. molecule - three polypeptide chains form a collagen molecule
3. protofibril - several collagen molecules, cross-linked by covalent bonds
4. microfibril - a union of several protofibrils forms them
5. fibril - a combination of bundles of protofibrils
collagen is heterogeneous with regard to amino acid composition, number of

cross-links, attached carbohydrate side-chains and degree of
hydroxylation; on this basis collagen is divided into 15 subtypes collagen
fibers are firm and do not stretch
•elastic fibers structure: on the fiber exterior there are microfibrils, composed of
microfibrilary protein, the interior is formed primarily by a protein called elastin;
elastic fibers stretch well, then easily regaining their original shape
•reticular fibers - a subtype of collagen fibers, are well impregnated with silver
salts, hence the alternative term for them is argyrophilic fibers
GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE:
• glycosaminoglycans (non-sulfated and sulfated) - hyaluronic acid
• proteoglycans (glycosaminoglycans with proteins) - chondroitin-4-sulfate,
chondroitin-6-sulfate, dermatan sulfate, heparan sulfate, heparin
• glycoproteins - fibronectin, laminin, etc.
• ground substance is jelly-like in consistence; cells and fibers are
embedded in it
DENSE IRREGULAR
Specifics: many fibers, few cells, fibers are irregular in orientation
Localization: reticular layer of dermis; periosteum, perichondrium
CELLS
the major component of the relatively scarce cellular population is fibroblasts;
occasional mast cells and macrophages may also be found
FIBERS: numerous collagen and elastin fibers
GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: moderate amounts of

glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans
DENSE REGULAR
Specifics: many fibers, scarce cells, fibers are regularly oriented - arranged in
bundles
Localization: tendons, ligaments, capsules, fasciae, and fibrous membranes
CELLS
very few cells are present, most of them are fibroblasts; some mast cells and
macrophages as well
FIBERS: in abundance, collagen and elastic; have a regular orientation, form
thick bundles (fascicles)
GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans

in very limited amounts
TENDON
in tendons collagen fiber fascicles are invested with thin layers of loose irregular
connective tissue; the thinnest (first-order) fascicles are surrounded by
endotendineum; second-order fascicles are surrounded by peritendineum, the
tendon itself is a third-order fascicle
CONNECTIVE TISSUES WITH SPECIAL PROPERTIES
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Specifics:
basically composed of fat cells and thin layers of loose irregular connective
tissue
white adipose tissue
Localization: present everywhere
CELLS
white adipose cells (white adipocytes) cytoplasm is dominated by a single
large fat vacuole; cell nucleus and other organelles are pushed by the
vacuole to the periphery there is loose irregular connective tissue between
groups of adipocytes
FIBERS: small numbers of collagen and elastic fibers
GROUND SUBSTANCE: glycosamino- and proteoglycans in small amounts

BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE
Localization: between scapulae, around kidneys and thyroid gland

brown adipose tissue is more widely represented in fetuses, its quantity is
greatly reduced after birth
CELLS
brown adipose cells (brown adipocytes) many small fat droplets are scattered
throughout the cytoplasm; nucleus and organelles are in the cell center;
multiple mitochondria are present the brown color of cells is due to
significant amounts of iron-containing pigments - cytochromes; in brown
adipocyte mitochondria the free energy released from the oxidation of fatty
acids and glucose is not stored in the form of ATP, rather it is dissipated as
heat; therefore the function of this tissue is heat production and regulation of
body's thermal balance there are also small numbers of fibroblasts and other
cell types of loose irregular connective tissue
FIBERS: small amounts of collagen and elastic fibers
GROUND SUBSTANCE: glycosamino- and proteoglycans in small amounts

PIGMENTARY TISSUE
Specifics: ordinary loose or dense connective tissue with large numbers of

pigment cells
Localization: vascular tunic of the eye, dermis under mammary gland

areolae, birthmarks, and nevi
MUCOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Specifics: few cells and fibers, lots of ground substance
Localization: umbilical cord (Wharton's jelly)
CELLS
in general, poorly differentiated fibroblasts in small numbers
FIBERS: scarce and thin collagen fibers
GROUND SUBSTANCE: generally contains hyaluronic acid

RETICULAR TISSUE
Specifics: provides a soft structural framework (stroma) for organs of

hemopoiesis and immunity
Localization: spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, lymphoid follicles, and red bone
marrow
CELLS
reticular cells (a subtype of fibroblasts) these cells possess processes which
they connect to each other through forming thereby a network; other cell
types of loose connective tissue are also present in small quantities:
macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells, fat cells (adipocytes)
FIBERS:
reticular fibers - a subtype of collagen fibers, are well stained with silver
salts; that's why they are also known as argyrophilic fibers; they form a
meshwork
GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: extracellular fluid

OSSEOUS TISSUE
CELLS:
•osteoblasts - take origin from poorly differentiated mesenchymal cells; reside in
the internal layer of periosteum, during bone development osteoblasts are on the
periosteal surface and around interosseous blood vessels; these cells are cuboidal,
columnar and polygonal in shape, have a well-developed rough endoplasmic
reticulum
function - production of bone intercellular matter
•osteocytes - a mature form of osteoblasts, they lie in lacunae within a bone and
extend protoplasmic processes into small canaliculi in the intercellular matrix
function - weak secretion of bone intercellular matter components
•osteoclasts - macrophages of bone tissue, blood monocytes being their
precursors; large multinucleated cells; a zone of cytoplasm adjacent to osseous
surface is referred to as ruffled border, multiple cytoplasmic processes and
lysosomes are found here
function - destruction and resorption of bone fibers and ground substance
FIBERS: collagen fibers
GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: the predominant component is calcium

phosphate mostly in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals and some in amorphous
state; small amounts of magnesium phosphate and very scarce
glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans are also found
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF THE BONE:
fibrous (immature) bone

•ossein fiber orientation is random
•cells are embedded into the intercellular matrix, reside on bone surfaces and
around vessels penetrating the bone
lamellar (mature) bone

•ossein fibers are regularly arranged, forming bone lamellae
•fibers in a lamella have identical orientation
•fibers in adjacent lamellae lie in the same plane but perpendicular to each other
•cells reside between lamellae in specialized lacunae as well as around
penetrating vessels
•cells have processes, which they can connect to each other by
•apart from osseous lamellae in lamellar bone there are special structures
- osteons
•osteon forms around a vessel, therefore there is always a vessel in the center of
osteon, and circular lamellae with some cells scattered in-between are present
around a vessel
•an osseous channel through which a blood vessel traverses is referred to as
Haversian canal
PERIOSTEUM
has 2 layers:
external - fibrous; made of dense irregular connective tissue
internal - cellular (osteogenic); contains many osteoblasts and blood vessels,
some osteocytes as well
functions: bone nutrition, longitudinal and transverse growth of bone, its
regeneration
ENDOSTEUM
a lining covering a bone from the marrow side, made of loose irregular
connective tissue with osteoblasts and osteoclasts in addition to more
common cell types of this tissue
CARTILAGINOUS TISSUE
THREE TYPES OF CARTILAGE ARE DISTINGUISHED
•HYALINE
•ELASTIC
•FIBROUS
what distinguishes them is primarily intercellular matter composition

CELLS
chondroblasts - less differentiated cartilage cells, originate from non-
differentiated mesenchyme; have a flattened shape; a well-developed rough
endoplasmic reticulum in a basophilic cytoplasm;
function - elaboration of cartilage intercellular matter; under certain
circumstances chondroblasts are capable of producing matrix-degrading
enzymes - collagenase, elastase, hyaluronidase
reside in the internal layer of periosteum and in the depth of matrix - within
lacunes chondroblasts mature into chondrocytes
chondrocytes - differentiated cartilage cells; of round or angular shapes,

with advancing cellular age chondrocytes progressively lose their rough
endoplasmic reticulum;
function - elaboration of cartilage intercellular matter; under certain
circumstances chondroblasts are capable of producing matrix-degrading
enzymes - collagenase, elastase, hyaluronidase
reside in the depth of matrix - within minute special cavities lacunes
sometimes the number of cartilage cells in one lacune is more than one, it is
the consequence of cell division; quite often the division id accomplished
through amitosis; such cellular groups are called isogenic groups
CARTILAGE AND BONE
hyaline cartilage
Localization: trachea and bronchi, articular surfaces, larynx, costosternal

junctions
FIBERS: collagen fibers
GROUND SUBSTANCE: glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans
elastic cartilage
Localization: pinna of the ear, corniculate and cuneiform cartilages of the

larynx, nasal cartilages
FIBERS: elastic and collagen fibers
GROUND SUBSTANCE: glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans

fibrous cartilage
Localization: attachments of tendons and ligaments to hyaline cartilage,
intervertebral disks, semimovable joints, and symphysis
FIBERS: parallel fascicles of collagen fibers; more fibers than in other types
of cartilage
GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: glycosaminoglycans and

proteoglycans
intervertebral disk
consists of:
1. anulus fibrosus - contains predominantly circular fibers
2. nucleus pulposus - is composed of glycosaminoglycans and
proteoglycans with cartilage cells in them
PERICHONDRIUM
has 2 layers:
external - fibrous; made of dense irregular connective tissue
internal - cellular (chondrogenic); contains many osteoblasts and blood
vessels
functions: cartilage nutrition, appositional growth, and regeneration
there are no blood vessels in cartilage

Tissues, Glands and

Membranes
Functions of Epithelia
• Proctecting underlying structures
• Acting as barriers
• Permitting the passage of substances
• Secreting substances
• Absorbing substances
Classification of Epithelia
• Simple epithelium – single layer of
thin flat cells
>lines blood vessels and the heart,
lymphatic vessels, alveoli of the
lungs and lining of serous
membranes of body cavities
• Simple cuboidal – single layer of cube-shaped
cells some with microvilli or cilia
>for secretion and absorption by cells of the
kidney tubules
• Simple columnar – single layer of tall,
narrow cells, some have cilia or
microvilli
>respiratory tract, auditory, uterine
tubes and uterus, intestines
• Psuedostratified columnar – single layer of
cells, some tall and thin and others not
• Synthesize and secrete mucus onto free
surface and move mucus or fluid that have
foreign particles
• Lines nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, auditory
tubes, trachea, bronchi of lungs
• Stratified squamous – several layers
if cells that are cuboidal at base and
flatttens toward the surface
• Protects against abrasion, barrier for
infection and reduces water loss from
body
• Keratinized and nonkeratinized
• Transitional epithelium – stratified
cells that appear cuboidal when not
stretched and squamous when the
organ is stretched by fluid
• Urinary bladder
• Stratified cuboidal – consists of more
than one layer of cuboidal epithelial
cells
• Found in sweat glands, ovarian
follicular cells and salivary glands
• Stratified columnar – consists of more
than one layer of epithelial cells;
surface cells more columnar in shape
• Rare; found in mammary gland ducts,
larynx and a portion of the male
urethra.
Glands
• Multicellular structure that secretes
substances onto a surface, cavity or
blood
–Simple
–Compound
–Tubular
–Acinus/alveolus
–Endocrine
Connective tissue
• Characterized by large amounts of

extracellular materials that
separate celss from one another
• Major components:
–Protein fibers
–Ground substances consisting of
nonfibrous protein
–fluid
Functions of Connective
Tissue
• Enclosing and separating
• Connecting tissues to one another
• Supporting and moving
• Storing
• Cushioning and insulating
• Transporting
• Protecting
Classifications of
Connective Tissue
• Loose or areolar
• Adipose
• Dense
– Dense collagenous
– Dense elastic
• Cartilage
– Hyalin
– Fibrocartilage
– Elastic Cartilage
• Bone
• Blood
Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
• Smooth
Nervous Tissue
• Consists of neurons and support

cells
– Neuron/nerve cell-responsible for
conduction of action potential
– Cell body-contains organelles
– Dendrites and axons – nerve cell
extension
– neuroglia- support cells of nervous
system
Membranes
Thin sheet or layer of tissues that covers a
structure or lines a cavity
• Mucous membrane – various kinds of
epithelium resting on a thick layer of
connective tissue
• Serous membranes – membranes consist
of simple squamous epithelium resting on
a delicate layer of loose connective tissue
Membranes
• Skin/cutaneous – stratified squamous
epithelium and dense connective
tissue
• Synovial membrane – line the inside
of joint cavities
Inflammation
• Occurs when tissues are damaged
• 5 major symptoms:
– Redness
– Heat
– Swelling
– Pain
– Disturbance of function
Tissue Repair
• Labile cells – continue to divide
throughout life
• Stable cells – don’t actively divide;
retain ability to divide after an injury
• Permanent cells – have little or no
ability to divide
Regeneration and
replacement
• Regeneration – new cells are the
same tupe as those that were
destroyed
• Replacement – new type of tissue
develops eventually causes scar
production
Tissue Repair
• Edges of a wound
close together gets
filled with blood
• Dilation of blood
vessels allows
inflammatory
response
• Epthelium under the
wound is regenerated
until scab is sloughed
off
• Granulation tissue
replaces clot
Tissues and Aging

• Cells divide more slowly
• RBC synthesis declines
• Injuries heal slowly
• Less flexible; more fragile
CHAPTER 2: MUSCLE TISSUES
Structure
We know that living organisms can move on their own or can perform other
types of movement. Muscle tissue has a ability to relax and contrast and so
bring about movement and mechanical work in various parts of the body.
There are other movements in the body too which are necessary for the
survival of the organism such as the heart beat and the movements of the
alimentary canal.
Muscles can be divided into three main groups according to their structure
•Smooth muscle tissue.
•Skeletal muscle tissue.
•Cardiac (heart) muscle tissue
Types of Muscle Tissue
Smooth Muscle Tissue

Smooth muscle tissue is made up of thin-elongated muscle
cells, fibres. These fibres are pointed at their ends and each
has a single, large, oval nucleus. Each cell is filled with
a specialized cytoplasm, the sarcoplasm and is surrounded by
a thin cell membrane, thesarcolemma. Each cell has
many myofibrils which lie parallel to one another in the
direction of the long axis of the cell. They are not arranged in
a definite striped (striated) pattern, as in skeletal muscles
- hence the name smooth muscle . Smooth muscle fibres
interlace to form sheets or layers of muscle tissue rather
than bundles. Smooth muscle is involuntary tissue, i.e. it is
not controlled by the brain. Smooth muscle forms the muscle
layers in the walls of hollow organs such as the digestive
tract (lower part of the esophagus, stomach and intestines),
the walls of the bladder, the uterus, various ducts of
glands and the walls of blood vessels .
– Functions of Smooth Muscle Tissue
– Controls slow, involuntary movements such
as the contraction of the smooth muscle
tissue in the walls of the stomach and
intestines.
– The muscle of the arteries contracts and

relaxes to regulate the blood pressure and
the flow of blood.
Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle is the most abundant tissue in the
vertebrate body. These muscles are attached to and
bring about the movement of the various bones of the
skeleton, hence the name skeletal muscles. The whole
muscle, such as the biceps, is enclosed in a sheath of
connective tissue, the epimysium. This sheath folds
inwards into the substance of the muscle to surround a
large number of smaller bundles, the fasciculi. These
fasciculi consist of still smaller bundles of elongated,
cylindrical muscle cells, the fibres. Each fiber is
a syncytium, i.e. a cell that have many nuclei.
The nuclei are oval in shaped and are found at the
periphery of the cell, just beneath the thin, elastic
membrane (sarcolemma).
– The sarcoplasm also has many alternating light and

dark bands, giving the fibre a striped or striated
appearance (hence the name striated muscle). With
the aid of an electron microscope it can be seen that
each muscle fibre is made up of many smaller units,
the myofibrils. Each myofibril consists of small
protein filaments, known asactin and myosin
filaments. The myosin filaments are slightly
thicker and make up the dark band (or A-band).
– The actin filaments make up the light

bands (I-bands) which are situated on
either side of the dark band. The actin
filaments are attached to the Z-line. This
arrangement of actin and myosin
filaments is known as a sacromere.
During the contraction of skeletal muscle
tissue, the actin filaments slide
inwards between the myosin filaments.
Mitochondria provide the energy for this to take place. This action causes
a shortening of the sacromeres (Z-lines move closer together), which in turn
causes the whole muscle fibre to contract. This can bring about a shortening
of the entire muscle such as the biceps, depending on the number of muscles
fibres that were stimulated. The contraction of skeletal muscle tissue is
very quick and forceful.
Functions of Skeletal Muscle Tissue

•Skeletal muscles function in pairs to bring about the coordinated movements
of the limbs, trunk, jaws, eyeballs, etc.
•Skeletal muscles are directly involved in the breathing process.
Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue

This is a unique tissue found only in the walls of the heart. Cardiac
(Heart) Muscle Tissue shows some of the characteristics of smooth
muscle and some of skeletal muscle tissue. Its fibres , like those of
skeletal muscle, have cross-striations and contain numerous nuclei.
However, like smooth muscle tissue, it is involuntary. Cardiac
muscle differ from striated muscle in the following aspects: they
are shorter, the striations are not so obvious, the sarcolemma is
thinner and not clearly discernible, there is only one nucleus
present in the centre of each cardiac fibre and adjacent fibres branch
but are linked to each other by so-called muscle bridges. The spaces
between different fibres are filled with areolar connective tissue
which contains blood capillaries to supply the tissue with the oxygen
and nutrients.
Functions of Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue

•Cardiac muscle tissue plays the most important role in the
contraction of the atria and ventricles of the heart.
•It causes the rhythmical beating of the heart, circulating the blood
and its contents throughout the body as a consequence.
Source: http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za
END

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PHILIPPINE PARAMEDICAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOL INCORPORATED - CEBU

Anatomy of the Cell

Cell Structure and Their

3 Main Regions of a Cell

How substances move across

• Substances need to pass through the

Passive processes include:

Movement through cell

Movement through cell

Movement through cell membrane:

• Once within the cell, enzymes

• Pinocytosis or “cell drinking” is a

• These are large particles of fat,

• The Rough ER has

The Nuclear Envelope

Cellular Aspects of Aging

Nucleolus - noo-KLEE-oh-lus) (plural, nucleoli) A specialized structure in the nucleus,

sister chromatids - (KROH-muh-tidz) Replicated forms of a chromosome joined

Types of Epithelial Tissues

•Epithelial tissue which is only one cell thick is known as simple

Squamous (pavement) epithelium.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

•Skeletal connective tissues

develop from poorly differentiated mesenchymal cells; stellate or spindle-

collagen is heterogeneous with regard to amino acid composition, number of

Specifics: many fibers, few cells, fibers are irregular in orientation

Localization: reticular layer of dermis; periosteum, perichondrium

GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: moderate amounts of

Localization: tendons, ligaments, capsules, fasciae, and fibrous membranes

GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans

Localization: present everywhere

GROUND SUBSTANCE: glycosamino- and proteoglycans in small amounts

Localization: between scapulae, around kidneys and thyroid gland

GROUND SUBSTANCE: glycosamino- and proteoglycans in small amounts

Specifics: ordinary loose or dense connective tissue with large numbers of

Localization: vascular tunic of the eye, dermis under mammary gland

MUCOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Specifics: few cells and fibers, lots of ground substance

Localization: umbilical cord (Wharton's jelly)

GROUND SUBSTANCE: generally contains hyaluronic acid

Specifics: provides a soft structural framework (stroma) for organs of

GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: extracellular fluid

GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: the predominant component is calcium

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF THE BONE:

fibrous (immature) bone

lamellar (mature) bone

what distinguishes them is primarily intercellular matter composition

chondrocytes - differentiated cartilage cells; of round or angular shapes,

Localization: trachea and bronchi, articular surfaces, larynx, costosternal

GROUND SUBSTANCE: glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans

Localization: pinna of the ear, corniculate and cuneiform cartilages of the

GROUND SUBSTANCE: glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans

GROUND (AMORPHOUS) SUBSTANCE: glycosaminoglycans and

there are no blood vessels in cartilage

Tissues, Glands and

• Characterized by large amounts of

• Consists of neurons and support

Tissues and Aging

Types of Muscle Tissue

Smooth Muscle Tissue

– The muscle of the arteries contracts and

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

– The sarcoplasm also has many alternating light and