15-853 Page 1

15-853:Algorithms in the Real World

Cryptography 3 and 4
15-853 Page 2
Cryptography Outline
Introduction: terminology, cryptanalysis, security
Primitives: one-way functions, trapdoors,
Protocols: digital signatures, key exchange, ..
Private-Key Algorithms: Rijndael, DES
Public-Key Algorithms:
Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
RSA, El-Gamal, Blum-Goldwasser
Quantum Cryptography
Case Studies: Kerberos, Digital Cash



15-853 Page 3
Public Key Cryptosystems
Introduced by Diffie and Hellman in 1976.
Encryption
Decryption
K
1

K
2

Cyphertext
E
k
(M) = C
D
k
(C) = M
Original Plaintext
Plaintext Public Key systems
K
1
= public key
K
2
= private key
Digital signatures
K
1
= private key
K
2
= public key
Typically used as part of a more complicated protocol.
15-853 Page 4
One-way trapdoor functions
Both Public-Key and Digital signatures make use of
one-way trapdoor functions.
Public Key:
Encode: c = f(m)
Decode: m = f
-1
(c) using trapdoor
Digital Signatures:
Sign: c = f
-1
(m) using trapdoor
Verify: m = f(c)
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Example of SSL (3.0)
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) is the standard for the web (https).
Protocol (somewhat simplified): Bob -> amazon.com
B->A: client hello: protocol version, acceptable ciphers
A->B: server hello: cipher, session ID, |amazon.com|
verisign

B->A: key exchange, {masterkey}
amazons public key

A->B: server finish: ([amazon,prev-messages,masterkey])
key1

B->A: client finish: ([bob,prev-messages,masterkey])
key2
A->B: server message: (message1,[message1])
key1
B->A: client message: (message2,[message2])
key2

|h|
issuer
= Certificate
= Issuer, <h,hs public key, time stamp>
issuers private key

<>
private key
= Digital signature {}
public key
= Public-key encryption
[..] = Secure Hash ()
key
= Private-key encryption
key1 and key2 are derived from masterkey and session ID

hand-
shake
data
15-853 Page 6
Public Key History
Some algorithms
Diffie-Hellman, 1976, key-exchange based on discrete logs
Merkle-Hellman, 1978, based on knapsack problem
McEliece, 1978, based on algebraic coding theory
RSA, 1978, based on factoring
Rabin, 1979, security can be reduced to factoring
ElGamal, 1985, based on discrete logs
Blum-Goldwasser, 1985, based on quadratic residues
Elliptic curves, 1985, discrete logs over Elliptic curves
Chor-Rivest, 1988, based on knapsack problem
NTRU, 1996, based on Lattices
XTR, 2000, based on discrete logs of a particular field
15-853 Page 7
Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
A group (G,*) and a primitive element (generator) g is
made public.
Alice picks a, and sends g
a
to Bob
Bob picks b and sends g
b
to Alice
The shared key is g
ab
Note this is easy for Alice or Bob to compute, but
assuming discrete logs are hard is hard for anyone
else to compute.
Can someone see a problem with this protocol?
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Person-in-the-middle attack
Alice
Bob Mallory
g
a

g
b
g
d

g
c

Key
1
= g
ad
Key
1
= g
cb

Mallory gets to listen to everything.
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Merkle-Hellman
Gets security from the Subset Sum (also called
knapsack) which is NP-hard to solve in general.
Subset Sum (Knapsack): Given a sequence W = {w
0
,w
1
,
,w
n-1
}, w
i
e Z of weights and a sum S, calculate a
boolean vector B, such that:



Even deciding if there is a solution is NP-hard.
S W B
i
n i
i
i
=

<
=0
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Merkle-Hellman
W is superincreasing if:
It is easy to solve the subset-sum problem for
superincreasing W in O(n) time.
Main idea of Merkle-Hellman:
Hide the easy case by multiplying each w
i
by a
constant a modulo a prime p

Knowing a and p allows you to retrieve the
superincreasing sequence

=
>
1
0
i
j
j i
w w
p w a w
i i
mod * =
'
15-853 Page 11
Merkle-Hellman
What we need
w
1
, L, w
n

superincreasing
integers
p >
i=1
n
w
i
and prime
a, 1 s a < p

w
i
= a w
i
mod p
Public Key: w
i

Private Key: w
i
, p, a,
Encode:
y = E(m) =
i=1
n
m
i
w
i

Decode:
z = a
-1
y mod p
= a
-1

i=1
n
m
i
w
i
mod p
= a
-1

i=1
n
m
i
a
i
w
i
mod p
=
i=1
n
m
i
w
i

Solve subset sum prob:
(w
1
, L, w
n
, z)
obtaining m
1
, L m
n


15-853 Page 12
Merkle Hellman: Problem
Was broken by Shamir in 1984.
Shamir showed how to use integer programming to
solve the particular class of Subset Sum problems
in polynomial time.

Lesson: dont leave your trapdoor loose.
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Groups based on modular arithmetic
The group of positive integers modulo a prime p
Z
p
*
{1, 2, 3, , p-1}
*
p
multiplication modulo p
Denoted as: (Z
p
*
, *
p
)
Required properties
1. Closure. Yes.
2. Associativity. Yes.
3. Identity. 1.
4. Inverse. Yes.
Example: Z
7
*
= {1,2,3,4,5,6}
1
-1
= 1, 2
-1
= 4, 3
-1
= 5, 6
-1
= 6
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Other properties
|Z
p
*
| = (p-1)
By Fermats little theorem: a
(p-1)

= 1 (mod p)
Example of Z
7
*
x x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
6
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 4 1 2 4 1
3 2 6 4 5 1
4 2 1 4 2 1
5 4 6 2 3 1
6 1 6 1 6 1
For all p the group is cyclic.
Generators
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What if n is not a prime?
The group of positive integers modulo a non-prime n
Z
n
{1, 2, 3, , n-1}, n not prime
*
p
multiplication modulo n
Required properties?
1. Closure. ?
2. Associativity. ?
3. Identity. ?
4. Inverse. ?
How do we fix this?
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Groups based on modular arithmetic
The multiplicative group modulo n
Z
n
*
{m : 1 m < n, gcd(n,m) = 1}
* multiplication modulo n
Denoted as (Z
n
*
, *
n
)
Required properties:
Closure. Yes.
Associativity. Yes.
Identity. 1.
Inverse. Yes.
Example: Z
15
*
= {1,2,4,7,8,11,13,14}
1
-1
= 1, 2
-1
= 8, 4
-1
= 4, 7
-1
= 13, 11
-1
= 11, 14
-1
= 14

15-853 Page 17
The Euler Phi Function
If n is a product of two primes p and q, then
) / 1 1 ( ) (
|
*
p n n
n p
n
[ = Z = |
) 1 )( 1 ( ) / 1 1 )( / 1 1 ( ) ( = = q p q p pq n |
Eulers Theorem:
* ) (
for ) (mod 1
n
n
a n a Z e =
|
Or for n = pq
* ) 1 )( 1 (
for ) (mod 1
pq
q p
a n a Z e =

This will be very important in RSA!
*
mod then ) ( mod if
n
b a
x n x x n b a Z e = = |
Law of exponentiation:
15-853 Page 18
Generators
Example of Z
10
*
: {1, 3, 7, 9}
x x
2
x
3
x
4

1 1 1 1
3 9 7 1
7 9 3 1
9 1 9 1
Generators
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Operations we will need
Multiplication: a*b (mod n)
Can be done in O(log
2
n) bit operations, or better
Power: a
k
(mod n)
The power method O(log n) steps, O(log
3
n) bit ops
fun pow(a,k) =
if (k = 0) then 1
else if (k mod 2 = 1)
then a * (pow(a,k/2))
2

else (pow(a, k/2))
2

Inverse: a
-1
(mod n)
Euclids algorithm O(log n) steps, O(log
3
n) bit ops
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Euclids Algorithm
Euclids Algorithm:
gcd(a,b) = gcd(b,a mod b)
gcd(a,0) = a
Extended Euclids algorithm:
Find x and y such that ax + by = gcd(a,b)
Can be calculated as a side-effect of Euclids
algorithm.
Note that x and y can be zero or negative.
This allows us to find a
-1
mod n, for a e Z
n
*

In particular return x in ax + ny = 1.
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Euclids Algorithm
fun euclid(a,b) =
if (b = 0) then a
else euclid(b, a mod b)

fun ext_euclid(a,b) =
if (b = 0) then (a, 1, 0)
else
let (d, x, y) = ext_euclid(b, a mod b)
in (d, y, x (a/b) y)
end
The code is in the form of an inductive proof.
Exercise: prove the inductive step
gcd
x
y
integer quotient
15-853 Page 22
RSA
Invented by Rivest, Shamir and Adleman in 1978
Based on difficulty of factoring.
Used to hide the size of a group Z
n
*
since:
.
Factoring has not been reduced to RSA
an algorithm that generates m from c does not
give an efficient algorithm for factoring
On the other hand, factoring has been reduced to
finding the private-key.
there is an efficient algorithm for factoring
given one that can find the private key.

) / 1 1 ( ) (
|
*
p n n
n p
n
[ = = Z |
15-853 Page 23
RSA Public-key Cryptosystem
What we need:
p and q, primes of
approximately the
same size
n = pq
|(n) = (p-1)(q-1)
e e Z
|(n)
*
d = e
-1
mod |(n)
Public Key: (e,n)
Private Key: d
Encode:
m e Z
n

E(m) = m
e
mod n

Decode:
D(c) = c
d
mod n
15-853 Page 24
RSA continued
Why it works:
D(c) = c
d
mod n
= m
ed
mod n
= m
1 + k(p-1)(q-1)
mod n
= m
1 + k |(n)
mod n
= m(m
|(n)
)
k
mod n
= m
Why is this argument not quite sound?
What if m e Z
n
*
then m
|(n)
= 1 mod n
Answer 1: Still works prove m
k|(n)+1
= m mod n
via Chinese Remainder Theorem
Answer 2: jackpot if you find an m e Z
n
* then
GCD(m,n) is a factor of n
15-853 Page 25
Proof for m e Z
n
* Case
Assume w.l.o.g. that q divides m but p does not:
Let x = m
1 + k(p-1)(q-1)
= m*(m
(p-1)
)
k(q-1)

(1) x
p
m (by Eulers Theorem)
(2) x
q
0 (since q | m)

The Chinese Remainder Theorem states that for any two
solutions x
1
and x
2
to equations (1) and (2), x
1

n
x
2
.

Notice that for both x
1
= m
1 + k(p-1)(q-1)
and x
2
= m the equations
are satisfied.

Hence x
1

n
x
2

n
m.

15-853 Page 26
RSA computations
To generate the keys, we need to
Find two primes p and q. Generate candidates
and use primality testing to filter them.
Find e
-1
mod (p-1)(q-1). Use Euclids
algorithm. Takes time log
2
(n)
To encode and decode
Take m
e
or c
d
. Use the power method.
Takes time log(e) log
2
(n) and log(d) log
2
(n) .
In practice e is selected to be small so that encoding
is fast.
15-853 Page 27
Security of RSA
Warning:
Do not use this or any other algorithm naively!
Possible security holes:
Need to use safe primes p and q. In particular p-
1 and q-1 should have large prime factors.
p and q should not have the same number of digits.
Can use a middle attack starting at sqrt(n).
e cannot be too small
Dont use same n for different es.
You should always pad
15-853 Page 28
Algorithm to factor n given d and e
Given |(n), easy to factor n (two equations, two
unknowns):

(p-1)(q-1) = |(n)
pq = n

Given d and e, dont have |(n), but since
ed = 1 mod |(n), have

ed-1 = k |(n), for some unknown k. Almost as good.


15-853 Page 29
Algorithm to factor n given d and e
Suggested by Millers primality testing paper (1976):
Function TryFactor(e,d,n)
1. write ed 1 as 2
s
r, r odd
2. choose w at random < n
3. v = w
r
mod n
4. if v = 1 then return(fail)
5. while v = 1 mod n
6. v
0
= v
7. v = v
2
mod n
8. if v
0
= n - 1 then return(fail)
9. return(pass, GCD(v
0
- 1, n))
LasVegas algorithm
Probability of pass
is > .5.
Will return p or q
if it passes.
Try until you pass.
Let (n) = LCM(p-1,q-1)
Let m = #
2
(k|(n)/ (n)/2)
(#
2
is largest power of 2)
w
(n)/2
- 1 shares a factor
with n
w
(n)/2
= w
k|(n)/2
m
mod n
15-853 Page 30
RSA Performance
Performance: (600Mhz PIII) (from: ssh toolkit):

Algorithm Bits/key Mbits/sec
RSA Keygen
1024 .35sec/key
2048 2.83sec/key
RSA Encrypt
1024 1786/sec 3.5
2048 672/sec 1.2
RSA Decrypt
1024 74/sec .074
2048 12/sec .024
ElGamal Enc. 1024 31/sec .031
ElGamal Dec. 1024 61/sec .061
DES-cbc 56 95
twofish-cbc 128 140
Rijndael 128 180
15-853 Page 31
RSA in the Real World
Part of many standards: PKCS, ITU X.509,
ANSI X9.31, IEEE P1363
Used by: SSL, PEM, PGP, Entrust,

The standards specify many details on the
implementation, e.g.
e should be selected to be small, but not too
small
multi prime versions make use of n = pqr
this makes it cheaper to decode especially in
parallel (uses Chinese remainder theorem).


15-853 Page 32
Factoring in the Real World
Quadratic Sieve (QS):


log n bits in input, superpolynomial time
Used in 1994 to factor a 129 digit (428-bit) number. 1600
Machines, 8 months.
Number field Sieve (NFS):


Used in 1999 to factor 155 digit (512-bit) number. 35 CPU
years. At least 4x faster than QS
Used in 2003-2005 to factor 200 digits (663 bits) 75 CPU
years ($20K prize)
2 / 1 2 / 1
)) (ln(ln ) ))(ln 1 ( 1 (
) (
n n o
e n T
+
=
3 / 2 3 / 1
)) (ln(ln ) ))(ln 1 ( 923 . 1 (
) (
n n o
e n T
+
=
15-853 Page 33
Discrete Logarithms
If g is a generator of Z
n
*
, then for all y there is a
unique x (mod |(n)) such that
y = g
x
mod n
This is called the discrete logarithm of y and we use
the notation
x = log
g
(y)
In general finding the discrete logarithm is
conjectured to be hardas hard as factoring.
15-853 Page 34
ElGamal
Based on the difficulty of the discrete log problem.
Invented in 1985
Digital signature and Key-exchange variants
Digital signature is AES standard
Public Key used by TRW (avoided RSA patent)
Works over various groups
Z
p
,
Multiplicative group GF(p
n
),
Elliptic Curves
15-853 Page 35
ElGamal Public-key Cryptosystem
(G,*) is a group
o a generator for G
a e Z
|G|

| = o
a
G is selected so that it
is hard to solve the
discrete log problem.
Public Key: (o, |) and
some description of G
Private Key: a
Encode:
Pick random k e Z
|G|
E(m) = (y
1
, y
2
)
= (o
k
, m * |
k
)
Decode:
D(y) = y
2
* (y
1
a
)
-1
= (m * |
k
)

* (o
ka
)
-1

= m * |
k
* (|
k
)
-1
= m
You need to know a to
easily decode y!

15-853 Page 36
ElGamal: Example
G = Z
11
*

o = 2
a = 8
| = 2
8
(mod 11) = 3


Public Key: (2, 3), Z
11
*

Private Key: a = 8
Encode: 7
Pick random k = 4

E(m) = (2
4
, 7 * 3
4
)
= (5, 6)
Decode: (5, 6)
D(y) = 6

* (5
8
)
-1
= 6 * 4
-1

= 6 * 3 (mod 11)
= 7
15-853 Page 37
Probabilistic Encryption
For RSA one message goes to one cipher word. This
means we might gain information by running
E
public
(M).

Probabilistic encryption maps every M to many C
randomly. Cryptanalysists cant tell whether
C = E
public
(M).

ElGamal is an example (based on the random k), but it
doubles the size of message.
15-853 Page 38
BBS secure random bits
BBS (Blum, Blum and Shub, 1984)
Based on difficulty of factoring, or finding
square roots modulo n = pq.
Fixed
p and q are primes such
that p = q = 3 (mod 4)
n = pq (is called a Blum
integer)
For a particular bit seq.
Seed: random x
relatively prime to n.
Initial state: x
0
= x
2

i
th
state: x
i
= (x
i-1
)
2
i
th
bit: lsb of x
i

Note that:
Therefore knowing p and q allows us to find x
0
from x
i

) (mod
) ( mod ) 2 (
0
1
n x x
n
i
i
|

=
15-853 Page 39
Decrypt:
Using p and q, find
Use this to regenerate the b
i
and hence m
i

Blum-Goldwasser: A stream cypher
Public key: n (= pq) Private key: p or q

) (mod
) 1 )( 1 mod( 2
0
n x x
q p
i
i

=
x
i

xor
m
i
(0 s i < l) c
i
(0 s i < l)
b
i

Random x
x
2
mod n
BBS
lsb
c
i
(l s i < l + log n) = x
l
Encrypt:
15-853 Page 40
Quantum Cryptography
In quantum mechanics, there is no way to take a
measurement without potentially changing the
state. E.g.
Measuring position, spreads out the momentum
Measuring spin horizontally, spreads out the
spin probability vertically
Related to Heisenbergs uncertainty principal
15-853 Page 41
Using photon polarization
=
? (equal probability)
or
= or ? (equal probability)
measure
diagonal
measure
square
destroys state
15-853 Page 42
Quantum Key Exchange
1. Alice sends bob photon stream randomly polarized
in one of 4 polarizations:

2. Bob measures photons in random orientations
e.g.: x + + x x x + x (orientations used)
\ | - \ / / - \ (measured polarizations)
and tells Alice in the open what orientations he
used, but not what he measured.
3. Alice tells Bob in the open which are correct
4. Bob and Alice keep the correct values
Susceptible to a man-in-the-middle attack
15-853 Page 43
In the real world
Not yet used in practice, but experiments have
verified that it works.
IBM has working system over 30cm at 10bits/sec.
More recently, up to 10km of fiber.