ES337 Water for Developing Countries

Part B: Irrigation and Hydropower

Brett Martinson



Office F334
Office hours Monday 11:00 13:00
Phone 22339
E-mail dbm@eng.warwick.ac.uk
Objectives
To illustrate the combination of economics,
engineering and social organisation that determines
the best choice between competing technologies for
any specific site.
To familiarise students with the design processes
and the trade-offs required in selecting sites and
system components for Hydropower.
To enable students to design simple irrigation
systems and choose between competing methods
of water extraction.
To introduce them to the complexity of the socio-
technical interactions that constrain the
construction of new irrigation or hydropower
schemes.
Syllabus
B1. Basics
Hydrology, Water conveyance, Water storage
B2. Hydro power
Hydro systems, power needs, power available,
yields and economics
system design, entry arrangements, penstocks
and surge control, turbine selection, exit
arrangements and draft tubes, electronics and
control
B3. Irrigation
Water needs, Irrigation types,
Books
Massey, B (1998) Mechanics of Fluids
Stanley Thornes (QC 211 M2)
Harvey A et al (1993) Micro-hydro Design Manual,
IT Pubs, (TK 1081 H2)
Inversin, A ( 1986) Micro-Hydro Sourcebook,
NRECA (TK 1081 I6)
Tong Jiandong et al (1997) Mini Hydropower,
Wiley, (TK 1081 M4)
Stern, P (1997) Small Scale Irrigation
IT Pubs (TC 805 S8)
Cornish G (1998) Modern Irrigation Technologies,
IT Pubs, (qto TC 805.C6)
Diemer G & Huibers F (1996) Crops, People & Irrigation IT
Pubs (S 613 C7)
Web resources
Course site
www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/eng/staff/dbm/es337/
Dams
World Commission on Dams (home of Dams and
Development: A New Framework for Decision-Making)
http://www.dams.org
Hydro
www.microhydropower.net
Irrigation
FAO Irrigation Water Management Training Manuals
www.fao.org/docrep/
Assessment
Exam (70%)
Three of six questions (choose four)
Assessed work (30%)
Set in week 14
Worth 2.25 CATS (~ 22 hours work)
Part B1: Basics
B1.1 Hydrology
B1.1 Hydrology
Topics
Catchments
Runoff coefficient
Infiltration, rainfall runoff relations, runoff
coefficients
Interpolating rainfall data
Arithmetic mean method,Thiessen networks,
isohyets
Flow measurement
Buckets, staff gauge, weirs, current meters, salt
gulp, float method
Flow frequency
B1.1.1 Hydrology
Catchments
B1.1.1 Hydrology
Catchments: Estimating area: Counting
squares
B1.1.1 Hydrology
Catchments: Estimating area: Blocking
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Components
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Components
Groundwater accreditation
Interflow
Overland flow
Evaporation
Transpiration
Direct runoff
Evapotranspiration
Soil water
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Components
Transpiration
Water used by plants and returned to the atmosphere
Evaporation
Water evaporated directly from surface puddles
Soil water
Water retained by the soil
Overland flow
water running on the surface
Interflow
Water flowing underground but feeding the water
course
Groundwater accreditation
Water lost to groundwater
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Infiltration
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Infiltration
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Coefficient
R kP =
R = Runoff (mm s
-1
)
k = Runoff coefficient
P = Precipitation
(mm s
-1
)
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Coefficients
Surface Coefficient
Concrete or Asphalt 0.8-1
Gravel - Compact 0.7
Clay - Bare 0.75
Clay - Light Vegetation 0.6
Clay - Dense Vegetation 0.5
Gravel - Bare 0.65
Gravel - Light Vegetation 0.5
Gravel - Dense Vegetation 0.4
Loam - Bare 0.6
Loam - Light Vegetation 0.45
Loam - Dense Vegetation 0.35
Sand - Bare 0.5
Sand - Light Vegetation 0.4
Sand - Dense Vegetation 0.3
Grass Areas 0.35
Q
stream
= Stream flow (litres s
-1
)
R = Runoff (mm s
-1
)
A = Catchment area (m
2
)
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Streamflow
stream
Q RA =
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation of rainfall data
P = Precipitation
Subscripts are station numbers
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Arithmetic mean
Average each station in the area
1 2 3 1
......
n
n
P
P P P P
P
n n
+ +
= =

B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Arithmetic mean:
Limitations
Quick and dirty
Takes no account of changes in rain
gauge density outlying,
unrepresentative gauges can be over
valued
Not applicable if rainfall is dominated
by topography, intense convection or
very localised rainfall
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method
P = Precipitation
A = Area
Subscripts refer to regions
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method
W W Y Y Z Z
W Y Z
A P A P A P
P
A A A
+ +
=
+ +
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method
1 1 2 2 3 3 1
1 2 3
1
......
......
i n
i i
n n i
i n
n
i
i
A P
A P A P A P A P
P
A A A A
A
=
=
=
=
+ + +
= =
+ + +

P = Precipitation
A = Area
Subscripts refer to regions
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method:
Limitations
Not applicable if rainfall is dominated
by topography, intense convection or
very localised rainfall
Can be unnecessarily time consuming
as catchment becomes smaller and
rain gauges are more spaced out
simple distance weighting may be
adequate
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Isohyets
10mm
20mm
30mm
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Isohyets:
Limitations
Not applicable if rainfall is dominated
by topography or intense convection
(but better than Thiessen)
Often difficult to obtain in low-income
countries and usually only for average
yearly precipitation
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation
Buckets
Float
Weirs
Staff gauge
Current meters
Salt gulp
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Buckets
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Buckets: Limitations
Only useful for flows <20l/s
Whole flow must be channelled to the
bucket
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Float
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Float: Limitations
Average flow can only be inferred from
flow at surface
The stream bed should not have any
significant changes over the test
length
Needs a good approximation of the
stream bed shape which can be
tedious
Type Correction
Concrete channel, rectangular section,
smooth
0.85
Large, slow clear stream (>10m
2
) 0.75
Small regular stream (<10m
2
),
smooth bed
0.65
Shallow (<0.5m) turbulent stream 0.45
Very shallow (<0.2m) or rocky stream 0.25
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Float: Correction factors
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Calculation for
rectangular weirs
( )
3 2 3 2
2 2
0 0
3 2
2
2
3 2 2
w
w
v v
Q C b g h
g g
C bh
(
| | | |
(
= +
| |
(
\ . \ .

=
>2h >2h
b>3h
h
H
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Calculation:
Weir coefficients for rectangular weirs
Head on weir
h/H 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 5
0.5 2.31 2.28 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.26 2.26
1 2.07 2.05 2.04 2.03 2.03 2.03 2.03
2 1.95 1.93 1.92 1.92 1.91 1.91 1.90
10 1.85 1.83 1.82 1.82 1.82 1.82 1.81
1.83 1.81 1.80 1.80 1.79 1.79 1.79
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Calculation for
triangular weirs
( )
5 2
5 2
8
' tan 2
15 2
' tan
2
w
w
Q C g h
C h
u
u
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
>2h >2h
h
b
u
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Calculation:
Weir coefficients for triangular weirs
1.39
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Limitations
An initial flow estimate is required to
ensure the notch is an appropriate
size
The weir must be perfectly sealed
Permanent weirs are costly
Even a temporary weir can be
problematic and time consuming to
construct
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Staff gauge
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Staff gauge: Limitations
Needs a good approximation of the
stream bed shape which must remain
valid erosion/siltation will effect the
validity of measurements
Only valid for comparing flows over
time an initial flow reading must be
taken by another method
weir coefficients will change with
water height
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Current meters
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Current meters:
Limitations
Needs a good approximation of the
stream bed shape
Cost?
Fragility?
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp: Problems
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp: Limitations
Automated equipment can be
expensive non automated procedure
is complex
Needs skill to take readings and
interpret duff ones
Errors may not be apparent unless
maths is done on-site
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Time series
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1990
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1991
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Mass curve (Rippl
diagram)
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
C
u
m
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

r
a
i
n
f
a
l
l

(
m
m
)
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Buckets
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
10 30 50 70 90 110
Rainfall (mm)
F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
t
o
r
m
s
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
5 20 35 50 65 80 95
Rainfall (mm)
F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
t
o
r
m
s
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
20 40 60 80 100 120
Rainfall (mm)
F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
t
o
r
m
s
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2 10 18 26 34 42 50 58 66 74 82 90 98
Rainfall (mm)
F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
t
o
r
m
s
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Exceedance (flow
duration curve)
Daily Rainfall (mm) Occurrences
(frequency)
Cumulative
frequency
Percentage
cumulative
frequency
100 0 0 0.0%
99 0 0 0.0%
98 1 1 0.1%
97 0 1 0.1%
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
10 44 710 52.5%
9 52 762 56.4%
8 54 816 60.4%
7 90 906 67.0%
6 78 984 72.8%
5 126 1110 82.1%
4 106 1216 89.9%
3 96 1312 97.0%
2 39 1351 99.9%
1 1 1352 100.0%
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Exceedance (flow
duration curve)
http://www.geocities.com/jonpeltier/Excel/Charts/ProbabilityChart.html
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
5
0
.
1
0
.
2
0
.
5125
1
0
3
0
5
0
7
0
9
0
9
5
9
8
9
9
9
9
.
8
9
9
.
9
9
9
.
9
5
9
9
.
9
9
0
.
0
2
9
9
.
9
8
0.1
1
10
Percentage of discharge exceeding
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)
B1.1 Hydrology
Summary
1. Streams are defined by their catchments; the
area where rain falls and flows to the stream
2. Rainfall over a catchment can be converted to a
(fairly rough) estimate of streamflow by using a
runoff coefficient
3. Nearby rain gauges can be used to give an
estimate of the rainfall over a catchment using
arithmetic mean or Thiessen methods. Isohyets
can also be used
4. Streamflow can also be measured directly using
means of buckets, floats, weirs, staff gauges
current meters and the salt gulp technique
5. Time series data can usefully be summarised as a
mass curve or as an exceedance
B1.2 Next..Water Storage