What is caisson?

Materials used for construct a caisson

Design aspects of caisson
Types of caisson
Open caisson
Pneumatic caisson
Box caisson
Comparison between the types of caissons
Failures of caissons
Applications of caisson
Illustrative example






A caisson is a structure used in construction and
engineering, particularly underwater projects. Its
purpose is to provide a dry, protected environment
for workers and construction materials.

Its a form of deep foundation which are constructed
above ground level, then sunk to the required level
by excavating or dredging material from within the
caisson as a single unit.
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Depending upon the importance and magnitude of the job
there are three types of materials which are used to
construct a caisson.
1.Timber - Timber is much less used these days than steel and
reinforced Concrete & comparatively high cost.
2.Steel - It provides the necessary weight to aid in the sinking
process, which is more continuous, and relatively
faster when compared with Caissons built of
reinforced Concrete.
3.Reinforced concrete - It utilizes concrete for the dual
purpose of providing the necessary
strength and the dead weight for
sinking. It is more economical.
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1. Shape & size
2. Design loads
3. Allowable bearing pressure
4. Skin friction & sinking effort
5. Concrete seal
6. Cutting edge
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Caissons are constructed with practically straight and
vertical sides from top to bottom. The shape of a
Caisson in plan may be Circular, Square, Rectangular,
Octagonal, Twin-Circular, Twin-Rectangular, Twin-
Hexagonal, Twin- Octagonal, or Double-D
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Sometimes, the choice of shape of a Caisson is
influenced by its size and by the shape of the
superstructures.
Twin-Circular, Twin-Rectangular, Twin-Hexagonal,
Twin-Octogonal, and the Double-D types are used to
support heavy loads from large bridge piers.
The size of a Caisson is governed by the following
factors:
Size of Base
Bearing Pressure
Practical Minimum Size

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A Caisson must be designed to resist all kinds of loads
which may act at different times during service
Dead Loads
Live Loads
Impact Loads
Wind Loads
Water Pressure
Longitudinal Force
Earth Pressure
Centrifugal Force
Seismic Forces
Resultant Force
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Caissons are carried to a hard stratum, such as
compact sand, hard clay, gravel, or rock and never to a
soft stratum or weathered rock. The Net allowable
bearing pressure, Q
net
, for a Caisson in cohesionless
soil may be obtained from the following equation;




Where;
B = Smaller dimension of the Caisson, m
D
f
= Depth of Foundation below scour level, m
N = Standard penetration number (corrected)
R

and R
q
= Correction Factors for Water Table
Q
net
= 0.22N
2
BR

+ 0.67(100 + N
2
) D
f
R
q

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The factor of safety is 3 and Q
net
will be got in kN/m
2
. In the
case of pure clays, undisturbed samples should be tested to
determine the value of cohesion, C. The ultimate bearing
capacity Q
ult
is obtained from;


Where;
Q
ult
= Ultimate bearing capacity, kN/m
2
C = Unit Cohesion, kN/m
2
N
c
= Bearing capacity factor

The allowable bearing pressure of Caissons resting on Rock
should not exceed that for the concrete seal. Since the seal is
in water or in adverse working conditions, the allowable
bearing pressure is usually limited to 3,500 kN/m
2
Q
ult
= C.N
c
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Skin Friction is the shearing resistance between
the soil and the exterior surface of the caisson,
encountered during the process of sinking.
Caissons are usually designed to have sufficient
weight in each lift to overcome skin friction to
facilitate the sinking process.
Occasionally, the use of water jets on the sides
tends to reduce the skin friction. Even the
injection of bentonite solution on to the exterior
of the well has been found to reduce skin
friction.
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Values of the skin friction vary within a wide range for
each type of soil. Terzaghi and Peck (1948) give the
following values







If it is desired to proportion a circular Caisson such that
no ballast is required for sinking, the self-weight should
be at least equal to the force due to Skin Friction.

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This leads us to the Equation






where ;
D
e
and D
i
= External and Internal diameters of the Caisson
D = Depth of Penetration

c
= Unit weight of the Caisson Material
f = Unit Skin Friction.
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After the Caisson is placed in its final position a
thick concrete layer is placed at the bottom to plug
it. This is known as Concrete Seal or Plug, and
forms the permanent base for the Caisson.
The thickness of the seal should be sufficient to
withstand the upward hydrostatic pressure after
dewatering is complete and before concreting of
the Caisson shaft is done.
The seal may be designed as a thick plate
subjected to uniform pressure due to maximum
vertical loads from the Caisson.
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The thickness of the concrete seal, t, may be obtained from
the following equations:







These are for simply supported conditions.
Here; D
i
= Internal diameter of caisson
= B
i
/L
i

L
i
, B
i
= Internal length and breadth of caisson
q = Net upward pressure on the seal

c
= Allowable flexural stress for concrete ( 3,500
kN/m
2
)
For Circular Caissons
t = 0.59D
i
q

c
For Rectangular
Caissons
t = 0 866.B
i
q

c
( 1+ 1.61 )


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The Cutting Edge protects the walls of the Caisson
against impact and obstacles encountered during
penetration.
A cutting edge is usually made of angles and plates of
structural steel or reinforced concrete and steel. Since
sharp edges are easily damaged, blunt edges are more
commonly used.
To avoid tearing off the
cutting edge, the shell
concrete must be
anchored to the cutting
edge.
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Open caisson Pneumatic caisson Box caisson
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The top & bottom of the
caisson is open during
construction.
They may have any
shape in plan as round,
oblong, oval,rectangular,
etc.
Open Caissons are
normally used on sandy
soils or soft bearing
stratum and where no
firm bed is available at a
higher depth.



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Topping
Covering provided over the
caisson is called as topping.
Sand is filled in between
topping and bottom plug.
Topping also acts as a part of
shuttering for laying the well
cap.
Bottom plug
The lower portion of caisson
is sealed by the concrete is
called as bottom plug

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Steining
Steining is constructed in concrete or masonry work. Use of
steining is to provide dead load during sinking operation
Well curbs
It is a transition member between the sharp cutting edge and the
thick steining. It is thus tapering in shape. It is usually made of
reinforced concrete as it is subjected to severe stresses during the
sinking process
Well caps
R.C.C Slab covering provided over the top of well is termed as
well cap
Sand filling
The portion between top and bottom plug is filled with sand so as
to increase the self weight of the well and makes safe during
earthquake.


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The open-end caisson usually has a cutting edge. It is
first fabricated at the site & the first segment of the
shaft is built on it.
Then the soil inside the shaft is removed by grab
buckets & the segment sunk vertically.
Another segment is added to the top & the process of
sinking is continued by excavating the soil inside.
After the required depth is reached, concrete is placed
under water on the open bottom as seal to a depth that
will contain the hydrostatic uplift pressure.
Finally the concrete seal is completely cured, the water
in the caisson can be pumped out.
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Advantages Disadvantages
The caisson can be constructed to
greater depths.
The clearing and the inspection of
the bottom of the caisson cannot be
done
The construction cost is relatively
low
Concrete seal placed in water will
not be satisfactory
The rate of progress will be slowed
down if boulders are met during
construction
The help of divers may be required
for excavation near haunches at the
cutting edges
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This type of caisson is
open at the bottom and
close at the top & it is used
at the place where it is not
possible to construct the
well.
The working chamber at the
bottom of the caisson is
kept dry by forcing out
water under air pressure.
Pneumatic Caissons are
suitable in soft soils with
danger of scour and erosion
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Working Chamber
This is made of structural steel,
about 3 m high, with a strong
roof, and is absolutely air tight. It
helps to prevent entry of water
and soil into it.
Air Shaft
This is a vertical passage which
connects the working chamber
with an airlock. It is provide
access to the working chamber
for workmen & also used to
transport the excavated material
to the ground surface.
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Air Lock
This is a steel chamber provided at the upper end of
the air shaft above the water level. Its function is to
permit the workmen to go in or come out of the
caisson without releasing the air pressure in the
working chamber.

Miscellaneous Equipment
It is the equipment such as motors, pressure pumps,
and compressors are usually located outside at bed
level. Pressure in the working chamber is maintained
through an air pipe connected to a compressor.

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The cutting edge is carefully positioned & compressed
air is introduced into the working chamber to keep off
mud and water.
After dewatering the working chamber keep it to dry.
As workmen carry out the excavation in the dry, the
caisson gradually sinks.
After the caisson has reached the desired depth, the
working chamber is filled with concrete.
The air pressure in the chamber is kept constant till the
concrete has hardened up to the roof level.
The shaft tubes are then dismantled, and finally, the shaft
itself is filled with lean concrete.

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Advantages Disadvantages
Control over the work & preparation of
foundation for the sinking of caisson are
better since the work is done in dry
Extreme care is required for the
proper working of the system

The caisson can be sunk vertically as
careful supervision is possible
The depth of penetration below water
is limited to about 35m (3.5 kg/cm3).
The bottom of the chamber can be sealed
effectively with concrete as it can be placed
dry.
A lot of inconvenience is caused to
the workmen while working under
compressed air pressure, and they
may be afflicted with caisson disease.
Obstruction to sinking, such as boulders
can be removed easily.
Construction cost is quite high.
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In here the bottom is
closed.
This type of caissons is
first cast on land & then
towed to the site & then
sunk on to a previously
leveled foundation base. It
is sunk by filling inside
with sand, gavel, concrete
or water.
The box type of casing is
also called as floating
caisson
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Concrete cap
It is for received the loads
from the superstructure
Rip rap
To prevent scour, rip rap is
placed around the base
Sand or gravel
It is invariably used as the
ballast inside the caisson to
aid the sinking process.
Concrete is seldom used to
fill a box caisson.
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Preparation & paving construction
Bottom rebar binding (rebar fabrication)
Bottom formwork erection (formwork fabrication)
Bottom concrete casting after concrete testing
Bottom Formwork Removal and Curing
Upper Rebar Cage Installation (Rebar Cage Binding)
Upper Formwork
Upper Concrete Casting
Upper Formwork Removal
Inspection and Mark
Launching of a casted caisson (Heavy duty marine air bags
were used to move a caisson on yard premises)
Placing of Caissons


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Advantages Disadvantages
Since floating caissons are precast,
good quality can be ensured
The foundation bed has to be
leveled before installing the caisson
The installation of a floating
caisson is quick and convenient
Deep excavation for seating the
caissons at the required depth is
very difficult below water level

Floating caissons are less expensive
than other types; they may also be
transported at a low cost by floating
Due care has to be taken to protect
the foundation from scour

The bearing capacity of the base
should be assessed in advance
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Open of monolith Pneumatic Box or floating
Relatively low cost High construction cost due to use
of compressed air in working
chamber
Construction cost is low
Can extend to great
depths
Depth is limited to a maximum of
35 m below the outer side water
level
Shallow depth of excavation
Bottom of caisson cannot
be easily inspected
,cleaned and tested
physically
Bottom of the caisson can be
easily inspected, cleaned and
tested as the working chamber is
kept dry
Bottom of caisson can only be
inspected by divers with difficulty
Concrete placed under
water is of doubtful
quality
Concrete placed in dry condition is
good & reliable
Construction of caisson in control
condition & of known quality
Relatively difficult to
control plumbness
Easier to control plumbness than
open caisson
Plumbness requires preparation of
level seating surface. Provision
for protecting against scour must
be made.
Slow construction if
boulders or logs are
encountered
Obstructions like boulders or logs
can be easily removed
Only less compacted material is
removed & bearing layer is not
well compacted
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There are two types of failures of caissons. They are;
1. Tilting
2. Shifting
The well should be sunk straight and vertical at the correct position.
Sometimes the well tilts onto one side or it shifts away from the
desired position.
The following precautions may be taken to avoid tilts and shifts:
The outer surface of the well curb and steining should be smooth.
The curb diameter should be kept 40 to 80 mm larger than the outer
diameter of the steining, and the well should be symmetrically
placed.
The cutting edge should be uniformly thick and sharp.
Dredging should be done uniformly on all sides and in all the
pockets.
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Remedial
measure
Figure Description
Regulation
of
Excavation
The higher side is grabbed more
be regulating the dredging. If it is
not initial stage, the caisson may
be dewatered if possible & open
excavation may be carried out on
the higher side.
Eccentric
Loading
Eccentric placing of the
kentledge may be resorted to
provide greater sinking effort on
the higher side.
depth of sinking increases, with
heavier kentledge
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Water
Jetting
If water jets are applied on the
outer face of the well on the
higher side, the friction is
reduced on that side, and the tilt
may get rectified.
Pulling the
caisson
Pulling the well to the higher side
by placing one or more steel
ropes round the well, with
vertical sleepers packed in
between to distribute pressure
over larger areas of well steining,
is effective.
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Pushing the
Well with
Jacks
Tilt can be rectified by pushing
the well by suitably arranging
mechanical or hydraulic jacks.
In actual practice, a combination
of two or more of these
approaches may be applied
successfully
Strutting the
caisson
The well is strutted on its tilted
side with suitable logs of wood
to prevent further tilt. The well
steining is provided with
sleepers to distribute the load
from the strut. The other end of
the logs rest against a firm base
having driven piles
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Foundation for bridge piers and abutments in lakes,
rivers, and seas, breakwaters and other shore
protection works
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large water-front structures such as pump houses,
subjected to huge vertical and horizontal forces.
Occasionally caissons, especially Pneumatic
Caissons, have been used as foundations for large
and tall multi-storey buildings and other structures.

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40
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the table given under the concrete seal
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A Caisson is a type of foundation, built above ground
level and sunk to the required depth as a single unit.
Caissons are broadly classified as Open Caissons,
Pneumatic Caissons, and Floating or Box Caissons.
Caissons are mostly used as foundations for bridge piers
and abutments, and water-front structures, as also for
multi-storey buildings occasionally.
How to solve a small problem to find out the parameters
of the caisson according to the design aspects.



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