BY : DR.

ANWAR
 Human information system is quite sequential.
 
 Input Processed, Analyzed and decision output
Input (Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Skin)
Afferent parts of Peripheral nervous system
Output (muscles activity or organ activity)
Efferent parts of peripheral nervous system.
 Our body and computer are both machines but the
difference is that computer is a machine which is
abstract and mechanical, whereas our body is personal
and have continual judging and feeling effects.
 CPU in human body is Brain. It has
two halves, Right and Left. Each
has:
 Fore Brain front 1/3
 Mid Brain mid 1/3
 Hind Brain Back 1/3
 Anatomically = 4 parts
 Cerebrum – concerned with voluntary
neuromuscular activity.(Thinking,
memory, hearing, consciousness,
emotions)
 Basal Ganglia – semi voluntary
(automatic movements of arms, while
walking)
 Cerebellum – balance , Posture
 Medulla – Active control of Organs, for
example Heart , Lungs
 Brain is made up of pulpy matter. Its
outer half (Cortex), is thrown into
heights called Sulci, and depth is
called Gyri
 Brain is protected by the skull. 12
pairs of cranial nerves come out
through small hole at the base of the
skull. These control vision, eye
movement, face muscles, smell,
hearing, face sensation, tongue.
 Vision, eye movement- 2,3,4,6th
Nerves
 Face muscles - 7th Nerve
 Smell - 1st Nerve
 Hearing - 8th Nerve
 Face sensation - 5th Nerve
 Tongue - 9th Nerve
 Spinal cord is the continuation of brain stem,
through a big hole at the bottom of the skull,
“Foramen magnum”.Spinal nerves come out from
sides of vertebral column.
 Mixed nerves, that is they carry both sensory &
motor sensation from different parts of body.
 Each nerve supplies well defined area of skin,
called Dermatome.
 Body Sensor:
 Information is received form
 a. Interior of body -Interoceptor
 b. Exterior -Exteroceptor
  
 Interoceptor
  
 1. Muscle spindle -Nerve filament wrapped
 Around muscle fibers
 Detect Stretch of muscle
  
 2. Golgi Organs -attached with tendous
 Report (strength of) contraction of muscle
  
 3. Ruffni Organs -With capsules of joints
 -Reports position of joints
  
 4. Vestibulum -In the internal ear
 (Ear) Position of head in space & report sudden change in its attitude
  
 5. Visceroceptor Internal organs
 -Reports pain, burning sensation and pressure
 External Receptor
 Gives information about interaction of body with
outside
 a. Vision (Sight) Retina
 b. Hearing (Auditory) Inner Ear
 c. Taste (Gustation) Tongue
 d. Smell (Olfactory) Nose
 e. Touch (Taction) Skin
Free nerve ending (Messiner Corpuscle-PaccinianCorpuscle)
 Temp are sensitive to Touch , Pressure & Determine direction &
 Pain strength of muscle activity.
 Vibration
  
 Information  Sensory pathway  Brain
(CNS)
 (Afferent pathway of Peripheral Nervous System)
 
 Brain Appropriate Action
Signals perceived in Context with the through motor pathway
to
Information stored  action decided (effect or
organs/ glands
(including no action) (efferent pathway of
PNS)
 
 Important thing is that nerve pathways from these nerve endings
interconnect so freely that the sensations reported are not
specific for that modality e.g. very hot or very cold sensation
are associated
with pain as well.
 Different technical devices are used to detect
 electrical activities of internal organs e.g.
 ECG to detect electrical
activity in the heart
 EEG to detect electrical
activity in the brain
 EMG to detect electrical
 activity in the muscles
 Human Senses
 Classical Vision
 Smelling
Hearing
Taste
Taction
  
 Non Classical to electricity , pain, posture, motion
  
 Body Sensors
 Receptors (act as converter) coverts the sensory pulses to electro-chem impulses  Brain
  
 Brain
 (Stored Memory) information received, analysed and appropriate action (including no action)
  
 Appropiate action ordered to Target group of muscles or organs
  
 Sensory threshold
 Minimal limits beyond which
 Maximal sensor do not react or
 Respond any more
  
 Vision - Wavelength (380-720 nm) Visible spectrum
of light.
 Hearing (16000-20000 Hz)
 
 Retina- rods and cones
 These nerve cells convert light to
electrical signals. They have
pigments.
 Rods respond to low intensity
light___ black, white and gray
 Cones respond to coloured
bright___ mostly blue, green and
red.
 Cones are concentrated at fovea,
in the center of retina directly
behind the pupil. The fovea along
with it yellowish surrounding, the
macula, is mostly needed for
reading fine points.
Visual field:
 An area measured in degrees, which
can be seen by fixated eye in front. In
each eye visual eye is limited
 Internally by - bridge of nose
 Above - orbital bridge
55 o
 Below - cheek
 Externally ranges is > 90
 Accommodation
 Action of focusing targets at
various distances and when one
moves from light to dark
surroundings.
 Near point = point which can be
focused at closet distance
 Far Point = point which can be
focused at farthest distance.
 Some Important aspects:
 1. Target at or near reading distance should be below eye level.
 2. Low optical quality objects are difficult to be seen when eyes are
fatigued or the person is under influence of drug.
 3. Resting distance of accommodation (Dark Focus or Dark Vergence).
Eye strains occur, when someone tries to focus at a target that is different
from his minimal refractive state. This distance is different for different
people, but constant for same person.
-Myopic (near sightness) -can see near object better, difficult to see far
objects, improves with age.
-Hyperopic -can see far object clearly, cannot see near objects clearly,
and deteriorate with age.
-Astigmatism -Cornea is not uniformly curve, so light rays are not uniformly
refracted on the retina.
-Night blindness -vision is less than normal vision in dim light.
-Color Weakness -can see all color but confuses especially in low
illumination.
 Visual Stimuli
 Human eye can see from a range of 380-720nm.(i.e violet to red)
 Night vision capabilities deteriorate with decreasing O2 level
 -At 1300 m. altitude, it decreases by 5%
 -At 2000m. altitude, it decreases by 20%
 Heavy Smoker – upto 40%
 Amblyopia – sudden blindness may occur in heavy smokers.
 Adaptation from light to darkness take about 30 minutes.
First, the cones are sensitive, then the rods. Even after
adaptation, the sensitivity at forea(cones) is only 1/1000 that at
periphery of Retina (Rod).
Therefore, lights can be noticed at periphery of field of vision, but
not of one direct gaze at them, when they are refracted at fovea.
 Adaptation from dark to light is quite fast with in few minutes.
 Visual Cavity:
 Measurement is checked at a far point, 6
meter away
 Measurement is made at near point, 0.4
meter.
 Snellen Chart
 Black Stumuli (letter) against contrasting
white background.
 Perfect Vision 20/20 6/6
At a distance of 6 meter, a person can
read the 6th line from above on the Chart.
 6/36 means, he can see the object at 6
meters, which others can at 36 meters
 Legally Blind - if vision in the better eye,
after correction is < 20/200.
 External ear
 Middle ear
 Inner ear
 
 External Ear:
 Pinna and Auricle---- collects direct and augment sound
waves onto Tympanic membrane (Eardrum).
Sound is increased by 10-15 dB.
  
 Middle Ear:
 Contains three bony ossicles
 Malleus
 Incus
 Stapes
 By a leverage action, they transmit the sound waves from eardrum to oval window in
cochlea. The sound is increased by 25 dB. Middle ear is connected to back of nasal
cavity by a channels (Eustachian Tube), which keep the middle ear at atmospheric
pressure.
 
 Inner Ear:
Has cochlea and semi circular canal. It is concerned with hearing and positioning of
head in space. It has two parts 1. Auditory portion, 2. Vestibular.
 
 Vestibular System: respond to magnitude and direction of acceleration and gravity.
Semicircular canals are sensitive to rotation of Head. Each canal function
independently in spite that they share a common cavity at utricle. Each canal near its
junction with utricle has widening (ampula), which contains a ridge, crista ampularis.
This crista has sensory hair cells, which move with movement of Endolymph.
 Auditory Portion:
Cochlea, makes 2-1/2 turns, has endolymph. Sound waves from ear
drum conducted to oval window are transmitted into fluid waves. This
fluid displacements deflect Basement members Sensory hair
cells in organ of Corti on the membrane
Transformed impules are transmitted along auditory nerves to brain.

 Therefore Soundwaves T.M oval window changed to

fluid waves(endolymph)
 

  Sensory hair cell(organ of Corti)

 
 

Brain.
 Human hearing range
 Infants 16- 20000 Hz
 Old < 12000 Hz.
  
 Air conduction better than bone conduction.
 Moving from atmospheric to non atmospheric and,
Moving from gravity to non gravity as in space, or in water, changes the
characters of sound transmission.
  
 Imp: Velocity of sound in solid, liquid, and gases are different.
  
 Music:
 Acoustic phenomenon, pleasant to the ear.
  
 Noise:
 Unpleasant to ear
 Noise induced Hearing loss. (N.I.H.L)
Noise can cause ---Temporary or permanent hearing loss.
High intensity sound, whether one considers it pleasant but loud can cause
permanent damage hearing ability.
Short duration of high intensity sound, e.g., canon fire/ Bomb blast can damage
any part of ear, but especially organ of Corti, which may be torn apart, which
causes to severe , permanent hearing loss.
Persistent noise of power tools, chain, saws, aero planes, automobiles, and music
heard through loud speaker, concerts, or head phones, can cause hearing loss.