Matrix Optics

Matrix Optics
-Geometrical light rays

-Ray matrices and ray vectors

-Matrices for various optical

components

-The Lens Maker’s Formula

-Imaging and the Lens Law

-Mapping angle to position

-Cylindrical lenses
 Is geometrical optics the whole story?

No. We neglect the phase. ~0

Also, our ray pictures seem
to imply that, if we could
just remove all aberrations,
we could focus a beam to a
point and obtain infinitely
good spatial resolution.
Not true. The smallest
possible focal spot is the >λ
wavelength, λ . Same for
the best spatial resolution of
an image. This is due to
diffraction, which has not
been included in
geometrical optics.
Geometrical optics (ray optics) is the
simplest version of optics.

Ray
optics
Ray Optics

axis

We'll define light rays as directions in space, corresponding,

roughly, to k-vectors of light waves.
We won’t worry about the phase.
Each optical system will have an axis, and all light rays will
be assumed to propagate at small angles to it. This is called
the Paraxial Approximation.
 The Optic Axis
A mirror deflects the optic axis into a new direction.
This ring laser has an optic axis that scans out a
rectangle.

Optic axis A ray propagating

through this system

We define all rays relative to the relevant optic axis.

 The Ray xin , θ in

Vector xout , θ out

A light ray can be defined by two co-ordinates:

its position, x
l ray
optica θ
its slope, θ
x

Optical axis

These parameters define a ray vector,

 x
θ 
which will change with distance and as  
 Ray Matrices
For many optical components, we can define 2 x 2 ray matrices.
An element’s effect on a ray is found by multiplying its ray vector.

Ray matrices
can describe
Optical system ↔ 2 x 2 Ray matrix
simple and com-
plex systems.
 xin  A B  xout 
θ  C D θ 
 in    out 

These matrices are often (uncreatively) called ABCD Matrices.

 Ray matrices as ∂xout ∂xout
xout = xin + θi n
derivatives ∂xin ∂θ in
Since the displacements and ∂θ out ∂θ out
angles are assumed to be small, θ out = x in + θ ni
we can think in terms of partial ∂xin ∂θ in
derivatives.

spatial
∂xout ∂xout
magnification ∂xin ∂θ in

 xout   A B  x in  We can write

θ  = C D  θ  these equations
 out     in  in matrix form.
∂θ out ∂θ out angular
∂xin ∂θ in magnification
 For cascaded elements, we simply
multiply ray matrices.

 xin   xout 
θ  O1 O2 O3 θ 
 in   out 

 xout     xin     xin 

θ  = O3 O2  O1     = O3 O2 O1  
 out    θin    θin 

Notice that the order looks opposite to what it should

be, but it makes sense when you think about it.
Ray matrix for free space or a medium
If xin and θ in are the position and slope upon entering, let xout and θ out
be the position and slope after propagating from z = 0 to z.

xout = xin + z θ in
xout θ out
θ out = θ in
xin , θ in
Rewriting these
expressions in matrix
notation:
z=0 z
 xo u t  1 z  xin 
θ = 0 1  θ
 out    in 
1 z 
Ospace =  
0 1 
 Ray Matrix for an Interface
At the interface, clearly:
θ out

xout = xin. θ in
xin xout

n1 n2
Now calculate θ out .

Snell's Law says: n1 sin(θ in) = n2 sin(θ out )

which becomes for small angles: n1 θ in = n2 θ out

1 0 
⇒θ out = [n1 / n2] θ in Ointerface = 
 0 n1 / n2
 Ray matrix for a curved interface
At the interface, again:
R
xout = xin . θ θ
s
θ θ 2
out

To calculate θ out , we 1
θ s
must calculate θ 1 and θ xin
in
θ s = xin /R
θ 2.
n1 n2 z
If θ s is the surface z=0 z
slope at the height xin ,
then θ 1 = θ in + xin / R and θ =θ + xin / R
2 out

θ 1 = θ in + θ s and θ 2 =
Snell's Law: n1 θ 1 = n2 θ 2⇒ n1 (θ in + xin / R ) = n2 (θ out + xin / R )
θ out + θ s
⇒ θ out =(n1 / n2 )( θ x in+/ R ) x in /−R
 1 0
in

⇒ θ out (=n1 / n2 ) inθ (n1+ / n2 1) x −in / ROc u r v e d =  (n / n− 1) / R n1 / n

in te r fa c e  1 2
 A thin lens is just two curved interfaces.
We’ll neglect the glass in between R1 R2
(it’s a really thin lens!), and we’ll take
n1 = 1.
 1 0  n≠1
Ocurved =  n=1 n=1
interface ( n
 1 2 / n − 1) / R n1 / n2

 1 0  1 0 
Othin lens = Ocurved Ocurved =   (1/ n − 1) / R 1/ n 
interface 2 interface 1  ( n − 1) / R2 n  1 
 1 0   1 0
=  = 
 ( n − 1) / R2 + n (1/ n − 1) / R 1 n (1/ n )   ( n − 1) / R2 + (1 − n ) / R1 1 
 1 0  1 0
=   −1/ f 1 
This can be written:
 ( n − 1)(1/ R 2 − 1/ R1 ) 1  

where: 1/ f = (n − 1)(1/ R1 − 1/ R2 ) The Lens-Maker’s Formula

 Ray matrix for a lens  1 0
Olens =  
1/ f = (n − 1)(1/ R1 − 1/ R2 ) -1/f 1

The quantity, f, is the focal length of the lens. It’s the single
most important parameter of a lens. It can be positive or
negative.
In a homework problem, you’ll extend the Lens Maker’s Formula
to lenses of greater thickness.

R1 > 0 R1 < 0
R2 < 0 f>0 R2 > 0 f<0

If f > 0, the lens If f < 0, the lens deflects

deflects rays toward rays away from the axis.
the axis.
 Types of lenses
Lens nomenclature

Which type of lens to use (and how to orient it) depends on the
aberrations and application.
A lens focuses parallel rays to a point one
focal length away. For all rays
A lens followed by propagation by one focal
xout = 0!
length:

 xout  1 f  1 0in x    0  f in x 0  
θ =  1f / 1f /− =  1 − x 0/ f
 out  0 1 −   1 0    
 
 
f Assume all
input rays have
θ in = 0
At the focal plane, all rays
converge to the z axis (xout = 0)
f independent of input position.
Parallel rays at a different angle
focus at a different xout .

Looking from right to left, rays diverging from a point are made parallel.
 Spectrometers To best distinguish different wave-
lengths, a slit confines the beam to
the optic axis. A lens collimates the
Camera
beam, and a diffraction grating
disperses the colors. A second
lens focuses the beam to a

f point that depends on its

f beam input angle (i.e.,
the wavelength).
Entrance θ ∝ There are
slit
λ −λ 0 many
types of
f spectrom-
eters. But
Diffraction they’re all
grating based on the
f same principle.
 Lenses and phase delay
Ordinarily phase isn’t considered in geometrical optics, but it’s
worth computing the phase delay vs. x and y for a lens.
All paths through a lens to its focus have the same phase delay,
and hence yield constructive interference there.

Equal phase
delays

Focus

f f
 Lenses and Λ ( x, y )
d
phase delay
First consider variation (the
x and y dependence) in the
path through the lens.
Λ( x, y ) = R12 − x 2 − y 2 − d
∆φlens ( x, y ) = ( n − 1)k Λ ( x, y )

∆φlens ( x, y ) = (n − 1)k  R12 − ( x 2 + y 2 ) − d 

 

x2 + y 2
But: R − x − y = R1 1 − ( x + y ) / R ≈ R1 −
1
2 2 2 2 2
1
2

2 R1

neglecting constant
∆φlens ( x, y ) ≈ −(n − 1)( k / 2 R1 )( x 2 + y 2 ) phase delays.
 x,y
Lenses and phase delay
(x,y)
Now compute the phase delay in the
air after the lens: Focus
0
∆φair ( x, y ) = k x 2 + y 2 + z 2
z
x +y 2 2
If z >> x, y: x + y +z ≈ z+
2 2 2

2z

∆φair ( x, y ) ≈ (k / 2 z )( x 2 + y 2 ) neglecting constant phase delays.

∆φlens ( x, y ) + ∆φair ( x, y ) ≈ −(n −1)(k / 2 R1 )( x 2 + y 2 ) + (k / 2 z )( x 2 + y 2 )

1 1
= 0 if = (n − 1) that is, if z = f !
z R1
Ray Matrix for a Curved Mirror
Consider a mirror with radius of curvature, R, with its optic axis
perpendicular to the mirror:

θ1 = θin − θ s θ s ≈ xin / R
R
θ out
θ θ out = θ1 − θ s = (θ in − θ s ) − θ s
1
θ s θ 1
≈ θin − 2 xin / R
θ in xin = xout

z  1 0
⇒ Omirror =  
 −2 / R 1 

Like a lens, a curved mirror will focus a beam. Its focal length is R/2.
Note that a flat mirror has R = ∞ and hence an identity ray matrix.
Laser Cavities Mirror curvatures matter in lasers.

Two flat mirrors, the flat-flat

laser cavity, is difficult to align
and maintain aligned.

Two concave curved mirrors,

the usually stable laser cavity,
is generally easy to align and
maintain aligned.

Two convex mirrors, the

unstable laser cavity, is
impossible to align!
 Unstable Resonators
An unstable cavity (or unstable resonator) can work if you do it
properly!
In fact, it produces a large beam, useful for high-power lasers, which
must have large beams.

The mirror curvatures

determine the beam size,
which, for a stable resonator,
is small (100 µ m to 1 mm).

An unstable resonator can

have a very large beam. But
the gain must be high. And
the beam has a hole in it.
 Consecutive lenses

Suppose we have two lenses

right next to each other (with
no space in between). f1 f2

 1 0  1 0  1 0
Otot =     = 
-1/f 2 1  -1/f1 1  -1/f1 − 1/ f 2 1 

1/f tot = 1/f1 + 1/f 2

So two consecutive lenses act as one whose focal length is
computed by the resistive sum.
As a result, we define a measure of inverse lens focal length, the
diopter.
1 diopter = 1 m-1
 A system images an object when B = 0.
When B = 0, all rays from a  xo ut  A 0  xin   A xin
point xin arrive at a point xout, θ =  θx =
independent of angle.  o ut C D
 C
 in  +  Din 

xout = A xin When B = 0, A is the magnification.

 The Lens Law
From the object to
the image, we have:

1) A distance do
2) A lens of focal length f
3) A distance di

1 d i   1 0  1 do  B = d o + d i − d o di / f =
O=   −1/ f 1  0 1 
 0 1    d o di [ 1/ do + 1/ di − 1/ f ] =
1 d i   1 do  0 if
=   −1/ f 1 − d / f  1 1 1
 0 1  o  + =
d o di f
1 − di / f d o + di − do di / f 
= 
 −1/ f 1 − d o / f  This is the Lens Law.
 Imaging
Magnification
If the imaging condition,
1 1 1
+ =
d o di f
is satisfied, then:
1 1
A = 1 − di / f = 1 − di  + 
1 − di / f 0 
O=  d o di 
 −1/ f 1 − do / f  ⇒ di
M =−
do
So:
1 1
 M 0  D = 1 − do / f = 1 − do  + 
O=  d o di 
 −1/ f 1/ M  = −
do
= 1/ M
di
 Magnification Power
Often, positive lenses are rated with a
single magnification, such as 4x. Object under observation

In principle, any positive lens can be used at an infinite

number of possible magnifications. However, when a viewer
adjusts the object distance so that the image appears to be
essentially at infinity (which is a comfortable viewing distance
for most individuals), the magnification is given by the
relationship:

Magnification = 250 mm / f

Thus, a 25-mm focal-length positive lens would be a 10x

magnifier.
 Virtual A virtual image occurs when the outgoing rays
from a point on the object never actually intersect
Images at a point but can be traced backwards to one.

Negative-f lenses have virtual images, and positive-f lenses do

also if the object is less than one focal length away.

Virtual Virtual
image image

Object
Object infinitely
far away
f<0
f>0

Simply looking at a flat mirror yields a virtual image.

 F-
number
The F-number, “f / #”, of a lens is the ratio of its focal length and its
diameter.

f/# = f/d
f f

d1 f d2 f

f/# =1 f/# =2

Large f-number lenses collect more light but are harder to engineer.
Depth of Field
Only one plane is imaged (i.e., is in focus) at a time. But we’d like
objects near this plane to at least be almost in focus. The range of
distances in acceptable focus is called the depth of field.

It depends on how much of the lens is used, that is, the aperture.

Object Out-of-focus
Size of blur in
plane
out-of-focus
Image
plane
f

Focal
Aperture
plane

The smaller the aperture, the more the depth of field.

 Depth of field example A large depth of field
isn’t always desirable.

f/32 (very small aperture;

large depth of field)

f/5 (relatively large aperture;

small depth of field)

A small depth of field is also

desirable for portraits.
 Bokeh is the rendition of out-of-focus points of light.
Bokeh Something deliberately out of focus should not
distract.

Poor Bokeh. Edge is sharply defined.

Neutral Bokeh. Evenly illuminated blur circle.

Still bad because the edge is still well defined.

Good Bokeh. Edge is completely undefined.

Bokeh is where art and engineering diverge, since better bokeh is due
to an imperfection (spherical aberration). Perfect (most appealing)
bokeh is a Gaussian blur, but lenses are usually designed for neutral
bokeh!
If all light rays are directed through The pinhole
a pinhole, it forms an image with
an infinite depth of field. camera
The concept of the
Pinhole focal length is
inappropriate for a
pinhole lens. The
magnification is still
–di/do.
Image
The first person to
Object mention this idea
was Aristotle.

With their low cost, small size

and huge depth of field,
they’re useful in security
applications.
The Camera Obscura A dark room with a small
hole in a wall. The term
camera obscura means
“dark room” in Latin.
Renaissance painters used
them to paint realistic
paintings. Vermeer painted
“The Girl with a Pearl
Earring” (1665-7) using
one.

A nice view of a camera obscura

is in the movie, Addicted to Love,
starring Matthew Broderick (who
plays an astronomer) and Meg
Ryan, who set one up to spy on
their former lovers.
 Numerical Aperture
Another measure of a lens size is the numerical aperture. It’s the
product of the medium refractive index and the marginal ray angle.

NA = n
sin(α ) Why this
definition?
Because the
α magnification
can be shown to
f be the ratio of
the NA on the
two sides of the
lens.

High-numerical-aperture lenses are bigger.

 Lenses can also
map angle to
position.
From the object to
the image, we have:

1) A distance f
2) A lens of focal length f
3) A distance f

 xout  1 f   1 0 1  f xin   So xout ∝ θ in

θ =  0 1 −  1 f/ 1 01  θ 
 out     in  
1 f   1 f  xin  And this arrangement
= −  1 f/ θ  maps position to angle:
 0 1  1  in 
 0 f  xin   θf in  θ out ∝ xin
=     = 
 − 1 / f 0 θ
 in   in− x / f 
• Telescope(matrix)
 Image Image
Telescopes plane #1 plane #2

Keplerian telescope M1 M2

A telescope should image an object, but, because the object will

have a very small solid angle, it should also increase its solid angle
significantly, so it looks bigger. So we’d like D to be large. And use
two lenses to square the effect.

 M 0 
Oimaging = where M = - di / do
 −1/ f 1/ M 
Note that this is
 M2 0   M1 0  easy for the first
Otelescope =   −1/ f 1/ M  lens, as the object
 − 1/ f 2 1/ M 2 1 1
is really far away!

 M 1M 2 0  So use di << do
= 
 − M 1 / f 2 − M 2 / f1 1/ M 1 M 2 for both lenses.
Telescope Terminology
 Telescopes (cont’d)

The Galilean Telescope

f1 < 0 f2 > 0

The analysis of this telescope is a homework problem!

 The Cassegrain Telescope
Telescopes must collect as much light as possible from the generally
very dim objects many light-years away.
It’s easier to create large mirrors than large lenses (only the surface
needs to be very precise).

Object

It may seem like the

image will have a
hole in it, but only if
it’s out of focus.
 The Cassegrain Telescope

If a 45º-mirror
reflects the
beam to the side
before the
smaller mirror,
it’s called a
Newtonian
telescope.
 No discussion of
telescopes would be
complete without a
few pretty pictures.

Galaxy Messier 81

Uranus is surrounded by its four major rings

and by 10 of its 17 known satellites

NGC 6543-Cat's Eye Nebula-one of the

most complex planetary nebulae ever seen
 Image Eye- Image
Micro- Objective
plane #1 piece plane #2

scopes M1 M2

Microscopes work on the same principle as telescopes, except that

the object is really close and we wish to magnify it.
When two lenses are used, it’s called a compound microscope.
Standard distances are s = 250 mm for the eyepiece and s = 160 mm
for the objective, where s is the image distance beyond one focal
length. In terms of s, the magnification of each lens is given by:
|M| = di / do = (f + s) [1/f – 1/(f+s)] = (f + s) / f – 1 = s / f

Many creative designs exist

Object To eyepiece
for microscope objectives.
Example: the Burch reflecting
microscope objective:
Microscope
terminology
 If an optical system lacks cylindrical
symmetry, we must analyze its x- and y-
directions separately: Cylindrical lenses
A "spherical lens" focuses in both transverse directions.
A "cylindrical lens" focuses in only one transverse direction.

When using cylindrical lenses, we must perform two separate

ray-matrix analyses, one for each transverse direction.
Large-angle reflection off a curved mirror
also destroys cylindrical symmetry.
The optic axis makes a large angle with the mirror normal,
and rays make an angle with respect to it.

Optic axis tangential

ray
before reflection

Optic axis after

reflection

Rays that deviate from the optic axis in the plane of incidence are
called "tangential.”

Rays that deviate from the optic axis ⊥ to the plane of incidence are
called "sagittal.“ (We need a 3D display to show one of these.)
Ray Matrix for Off-Axis Reflection from a
Curved Mirror
If the beam is incident at a large angle, θ , on a mirror with radius
of curvature, R:

tangential ray

Optic axis  1 0
θ
⇔  −2 / R
 e 1 
R

where Re = R cosθ for tangential rays

and Re = R / cosθ for sagittal rays
 Photography lenses

Photography lenses are complex! Especially zoom lenses.

Double Gauss Petzval

These are older designs.

• Camera
Photograp
hy lenses
Modern lenses can
have up to 20
elements!

Canon 17-85mm
f/3.5-4.5 zoom

Canon EF 600mm f/4L IS

USM Super Telephoto Lens
17 elements in 13 groups
$12,000
Geometrical Optics
terms
• Optical instrument(eyes)
Anatomy of the
Eye

Incoming
light

Eye slides courtesy of Prasad Krishna, Optics I student 2003.

 The cornea, iris, and lens
The cornea is a thin membrane that has
an index of refraction of around 1.38.
It protects the eye and refracts light
(more than the lens does!) as it enters
the eye. Some light leaks through the
cornea, especially when it’s blue.

The iris controls the size of the pupil, an opening that allows light
to enter through.

The lens is jelly-like lens with an index of refraction of about 1.44.

This lens bends so that the vision process can be fine tuned.
When you squint, you are bending this lens and changing its
properties so that your vision is clearer.

The ciliary muscles bend and adjust the lens.

 Near-sightedness
(myopia)
In nearsightedness, a person can
see nearby objects well, but has
difficulty seeing distant objects. Near-sightedness
Objects focus before the retina.
This is usually caused by an eye
that is too long or a lens system
that has too much power to
focus.

Myopia is corrected with a

negative-focal-length lens. This
lens causes the light to diverge
slightly before it enters the eye.
 Far-sightedness
(hyperopia)
Far-sightedness (hyperopia) Far-sightedness
occurs when the focal point is
beyond the retina. Such a
person can see distant objects
well, but has difficulty seeing
nearby objects. This is caused
by an eye that is too short, or a
lens system that has too little
focusing power. Hyperopia is
corrected with a positive-focal-
length lens. The lens slightly
converges the light before it
enters the eye.

As we age, our lens hardens, so we’re less able to adjust and more
likely to experience far-sightedness. Hence “bifocals.”
Astigmatism is a common
problem in the eye.