•The top layer is composed of Granite , an

igneous rock. This layer is part of the

continental crust only.
•The second layer is Basalt , another igneous
rock that is found in both the oceanic and
continental crust.
•The mantle is made of Magnesium , mostly rock
and cool magma .
•The outer core is made up of mainly Iron and
Nickel .
•Compressed of immense pressure, the inner core
is solid and made of Iron and Nickel as well.
There are two kinds of crust, Oceanic and
continental
This . continents, islands, rocks, minerals,
includes
 Components that hide under
We have very little recordour
to our feet
oceanic crust , because most of it is
not old enough – oceanic crust is
usually destroyed in subduction zones
just 200 million years after being
created in an ocean ridge . “ Ophioletes ”
are slivers of ancient oceanic crust ,
which were pushed on top of continental
crust at a subduction zone rather than
being pushed down beneath it . Recent
study dated a sample to be what is
thought to be 3 . 8 billion years old –
Oldest suggestion of plate tectonics
mary
yet . Components of Oceanic Crust
•Iron
•Silicon
•Oxygen
•Magnesium
ary Components of Continental Crust
•Silicon
•Sodium
•Oxygen TEMPERATURES INCREASE IN
•Calcium DEPTH OF INTERIOR OF OUR
EARTH . AT SOME POINT
•Aluminum TEMPERATURES INCREASE TO
•Potassium THE POINT THAT ROCKS MELT
AND FLOW LIKE LIQUID .
North American Plate - North America, western North Atlantic and Greenland
South American Plate - South America and western South Atlantic
Antarctic Plate - Antarctica and the "Southern Ocean"
Eurasian Plate - eastern North Atlantic, Europe and Asia except for India
African Plate - Africa, eastern South Atlantic and western Indian Ocean
Indian-Australian Plate - India, Australia, New Zealand and most of Indian Ocean
Nazca Plate - eastern Pacific Ocean adjacent to South America
Pacific Plate - most of the Pacific Ocean (and the southern coast of
California!)
 Volcanoes
The movement of tectonic plates is driven by Earth’s internal heat. Studying
temperatures within Earth, scientists can learn more about volcanic eruptions.
Despite the high temperature in the mantle, most of this zone remains solid
because of the large amount of pressure from surrounding rock. Every so often,
solid mantle and crust melt to form magma (liquid rock that forms under Earth’s
surface.)
hat is Volcanism?

through the crust because the magma is less dense than surrounding rock. As magma
off and melt. Both processes add material to the magma body.
ay build up as a cone of material that may eventually form a mountain. The vent i

Magma can form under three conditions. First, if the temperature of rock rises
above melting point of the minerals the rock is composed of, the rock will
melt. Second, if enough pressure is removed from the rock, the melting point
will decrease and the rock will melt. Third the addition of fluids, such as
water, may decrease the melting point of some minerals in the rock and cause
the rock to melt.
 Volcanoes Cont.
There are Volcanoes all over the world, even in the past fifty years. Looking
at a world map you can see that the active volcanoes form a pattern across the
earth’s surface. A major zone of active volcanoes encircles the Pacific Ocean.
This “area” called Pacific ring of fire was formed by subduction plates along
the pacific coasts of north America.
Subduction
Zones
Many volcanoes are located along subduction zones, where one tectonic plate moves
under another. When a plate of oceanic lithosphere meets one that consists of
continental lithosphere, the denser oceanic moves beneath the continental
lithosphere. A deep trench forms on the ocean floor along the edge of the continent
where the plate is subducted. The continental lithosphere buckles and folds to form
a line of mountains along the edge of the continent. As the plate sinks into the
asthenosphere, fluids such as water from subducting combine with crust and mantle
material. These fluids decrease the melting point of the rock and cause the rock to
melt and form magma. When that magma rises through the lithosphere and erupts on
Earth’s surface, lines of volcanic mountains form along the edge of the underwater
tectonic plate.
When two oceanic plates merge and one subducts, a deep trench forms. The same
happens here, falling minerals mix with the mantles minerals to form magma, this
magma breaks through the overriding plate to earth’s surface. Over time a string of
volcanic islands, called island arc, forms on top of the overriding plate. As more
magma reaches the surface, the islands become larger and join to form one landmass,
such as the volcanic islands that joined to form present-day Japan.
•Volcanism : Any activity that includes the movement of magma toward or onto
Earth’s surface.
•Lava: Magma that flows onto Earth’s surface; the rock that forms when lava cools
and solidifies.
 Earthqua
kes
Sudden movements of crustal plates called Earthquakes compose our
lithosphere. Although these plates are moving, this motion is so slight that
we do not realize it. An earthquake is sudden and sometimes very terrifying.
These quakes are caused by movement of faults. Faults are breaks in crustal
plates that move past one another. This movement is either vertical,
horizontal, or both.
•Focus : When blocks of the lithosphere on either side of the fault line
“Lock-up” and motion becomes halted. Pressure and tension builds until the
faults break apart and suddenly move past one another. This is called the
focus , and happens deep within the earth.
•Epicenter : Draw a line from the focus straight to our surface, this would
indicate the epicenter of the earthquake, this critical spot is where the
greatest motion is felt on the surface during a quake.
Movement of faults produce energy waves called seismic waves. These waves
radiate from the focus in all direction, similar to ripples on a pond. The
farther it travels the weaker it becomes.
• Seismograph : Measures intensity of an Earthquake.
A device called the Richter scale was invented to measure the intensity of
a quake. This scale, developed by Charles Richter in 1935, measures energy
waves produced by earthquakes and gives them a value between 1 through 9.
The higher number, the greater the quake. Usually quake level 3 is ignored
by human beings, averaging 7 can cause tremendous damage.

•
 Earthquakes Cont.
Earthquakes are classified into three
different waves .
P-WAVES, or primary waves, are the
fastest moving waves. They originate
in the focus and move outward through
all states of matter. P-waves cause
back and forth motion in matter.

S-WAVES, or secondary waves, are slower

moving than P-waves. They originate at
the focus and pass only through
solids, causing movement from side to
side.

L-WAVES, or long waves, are surface

waves. They are the slowest of the
three wave types. L-waves affect the
surface of the land by causing it to
rise and fall like waves on an ocean.
 Continental Drift
An observation made more than 400 years ago by early explorers sailed the
oceans of the world, brining information about continents and their coasts. As
people would study these continental shorelines they looked as if they could
fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. German Scientist Alfred Wegener proposed
continental drift, hypothesizing that the continents once formed part of a
single landmass called a supercontinent. During the Mesozoic Era this
supercontinent start shifting and drifted to their current locations.

Wegner found other evidence to also support his theory. Reasonably if these
continents were connected at one time their should be plant and animal fossils
on both continents. Unlikely that these animals crossed a huge body of water
to the other side. Proving that these continents were connected during our
past.

Geologic evidence also supports Wegener’s theory. The types and

ages of coastal regions such as western Africa and eastern South
America match closely. Mountain chains that end at coastlines
seem to continue on the other continents across the ocean.
 Mid Ocean Ridges
Evidence that Wegener needed to support his hypothesis lay on the ocean floor.
The mid-Atlantic Ridge is part of a system of mid-ocean ridges, which are
undersea mountain ranges. When studying the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, scientists
noticed that the sediment covers the sea floor is thinner closer to a ridge
than it is farther from the ridge. Sediment is older on the floor farther from
the ridge for a longer time than it has been settling near the ridge.
Scientists have concluded that oceanic floor is relatively young compared to
land above sea level.
 Sea Floor Spreading
In the late 50’s, geologist named Harry Hess suggested something new. He
proposed that the valley at the center of the ridge was a crack, or rift.
Molten rock from deep inside Earth rises to fill the crack. As the ocean floor
moves away from the ridge, rising magma cools and solidifies to form new rock
replacing the ocean floor crack. Robert Dietz another geologist named this
process by which new ocean lithosphere forms as magma rises to Earth’s surface
and solidifies at a mid-ocean ridge as sea-floor spreading. Suggesting that if
the ocean floor is moving, the continents might be moving too.

•Acknowledging continental drift and sea-floor spreading we are able to

determine how old the ocean floor is.
•As the ocean floor spreads out, older rock is resides farther away from the
Mid-Ocean Ridge.
•Supporting these ideas led development of theory Plate Tectonics.
 Plate Tectonics
Our Earth’s crust, the upper most part of our mantle called the lithosphere.
Forming thin outer shell on Earth, broken down into several blocks called
tectonic plates that lay on a deformable layer of mantle called the
asthenosphere.
•
•Litosphere: Solid outer layer that consists of crust and rigid upper mantle.
•Asthenosphere: Solid plastic layer of mantle beneath the lithosphere; made of
mantle rock that flows very slowly, which allows tectonic plates to move on
top of it.
•Earthquake: Classified when plates move sudden shifts occur along their
boundaries. We identify plate boundaries primarily by studying data from
earthquakes. Frequent quakes we establish two or more plates may meet in an
area.
•Volcano: Vent or fissure in the earth’s surface, through which magma and gasses
were expelled.

About 15 major plates identified around the world. While continents and oceans
do not always match the outlines of plate boundaries; some are located within
continents far from mountain ranges. Around plate boundaries are the most
dramatic changes on Earth’s Crust, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
These boundaries may be in the middle of the ocean floor, around edges to
continents, and even within continents.
•Three different kind of plate boundaries.
 Divergent Boundary
At these boundaries, magma from the asthenosphere rises to the surface as the
plates move apart. The magma then cools to form new oceanic lithopshere. The
new formed rock at the ridge is warm and light. This warm, light rock sits
higher than surrounding sea floor because it’s less dense. Forms undersea
mountain ranges known as mid-ocean ridges. Along the center of a mid-ocean
ridge is the rift valley, a narrow valley that forms where the plates separate.

Most divergent boundaries are located on the ocean floor. However, rift valleys
may also form where continents are separated by plate movement.

Red Sea occupies a huge

A divergent boundary rift valley formed by the
means two plates are separation of the African
moving away from each plate and the Arabian
other. plate.
 Convergent Boundary
Plates pulling away from one boundary , pushing into neighboring plates at
other boundaries. There are three different types of collisions that can
happen at convergent boundaries.
•One happens when oceanic lithosphere collides with continental lithosphere.
Because oceanic lithosphere is denser, it subducts, or sinks under the less
dense continental lithosphere. The area along a plate boundary where plates
move under another plate is called a subduction zone. As it subducts, it begins
heating up and releasing fluids causing material in the overlying mantle to
melt to form magma. The magma rises to the surface and forms volcanic
mountains.
•Second type of collision happens when two plates of continental lithosphere
collide. In this type, neither plate subducts because neither plate is dense
enough to subduct under the other plate. Instead the colliding edges crumple
and thicken, which causes uplift that forms large mountain ranges. The
Himalaya Mountains were formed from this type of collision .
•The third type happens between two oceanic lithosphere. One plate subducts
under the other plate, and a deep-ocean trench forms. Fluids released from the
plate cause mantle rock to melt and form magma. Magma rises to the surface
to form an island arc , which is a chain of volcanic islands . Japan
is an example of an island arc .
•Convergent Boundaries are boundaries that form where two plates collide.
•
 Transform Boundary
Transform is the boundary where two plates slide past each other, however the
plates edges do not slide smoothly. Instead, they scrape against each other in
a series of sudden spurts of motion that are felt as earthquakes. Unlike other
types of boundaries, transform boundaries do not produce magma. The San
Andreas Fault in California is a major transform boundary between
the North American plate and the Pacific plate .
This also occurs along mid-ocean ridges. Short segments of a mid-ocean ridge
are connected by transform boundaries called fracture zones.

Transform Boundary is the

boundary between tectonic
plates that are sliding
past each other
horizontally.
 Convection and Tectonics?
Many scientists think that the movement of tectonic plates is due to
convection. This process is modeled like a pot of water being boiled – The
water at the bottom of the pot is heated, the water at the bottom expands and
becomes less dense and raises to the top meanwhile the cooler water on top
sinks and re-heats to continue a cycle called a convection cell.
WHAT DRIVES PLATE
TECTONICS?
Some conclude that the Earth also
acts as a convecting system. Energy ? New
? ?
formed rock at mid-ocean ridge is warm and
less dense than older rock nearby. The warm,
generated by Earth’s core and less dense rock is elevated above nearby rock,
radioactivity within the mantle and older, denser rock slopes downward away
heat mantle material. Heated from the ridge.
material will rise through cooler, As cooling the rock sinks, the asthenosphere
denser material around it. As hot below it exerts force on the rest of the
material rises, the cooler, denser plate. This force is called Ridge push . This
material flows away from the hot force pushes the rest of the plate away from
material. As material moves, it the mid-ocean ridge. Scientists think that
drags the overlying tectonic plates ridge push may help drive plate motions.
along with it.

Plates pulling away from each other at mid-ocean ridges, magma from the
asthenosphere rises to the surface. The magma needs to cool to form new
lithosphere. As the lithosphere moves away from the mid-ocean ridge, the
lithosphere cools and becomes denser. Where lithosphere is dense enough, begins
to subduct into the asthenosphere. As the leading edge sinks, it drags the rest
of the slab behind it and is called Slab pull . Generally, plates that are
subducting move faster than plates that are not subducting, this indicating
that downward pull of the subducting lithosphere is a strong driving force for
 Rocks and their Minerals
The crust of our earth is composed of rocks, which in turn are smaller rocks called
minerals.
There are three different rock types and many different mineral types.
•Igneous: Formed from molten rock that cools and solidifies. Granite is an example of
Igneous.
•Sedimentary: Formed from sediments of plant and animal life and minerals that settle
and are cemented together due to pressure; often form in layers; sandstone, limestone,
and shale are examples of sedimentary rock.
•Metamorphic: Rocks that existed previously in a different form but have been altered
by pressure and heat.
The following is a check list used to determine
minerals from each other .
vHardness – Ability of a mineral to resist scratching. There are varying degrees of
hardness.
vColor – Classified according to color; not all can identified because many minerals
are the same.
vStreak – The mineral is scratched along a rough, unglazed ceramic tile, the color i
it’s identification.
vLuster – Ability to reflect light, minerals may be pearly, shiny, dull, silky, greasy
brilliant, or glassy.
vCrystal formation – Some minerals do not form crystals, these crystals vary in size
and shape.
vMagnetism – Specific to only a few minerals, if its reactive it narrows the search
for identity.
vFracture – Breaking into pieces that are uneven, rough and jagged. A mineral cannot
exhibit both cleavage and fracture.
vCleavage – Pieces that are smooth and flat that exploit layered sheets.
Minerals
vDensity are used inthe
- By determining industry,
mass ofagriculture, for personal
a mineral and the volumeuse, and inoccupy
it would medicine.
, its
 Weathering and Erosion
The process by which rocks and minerals break down. Weathering affects all
rocks, but not all rocks weather in the same way. Either mechanical being the
physical change or chemical weathering becomes the result of chemical change.
•Mechanical weathering is the state of change to a substance physically,
produced normally through forces of nature.
•Rain, dew, melting snow, or condensation fills cracks in rocks. Temperatures
drop and the water freezes requiring more volume than the original sample. The
cycle repeats, finally the liquid water and the ice wedge have separated the
rock into pieces.
•Chemical changes is the process that produces a new substance. Being exposed
to chemicals will alter a rocks composition.
•Acid Rain is chemical weathering, as rain pours from the sky, chemicals in our
atmosphere change the rain. Over time this rain can destroy buildings and
gravestones; anything made from rock.
•Soluble is when rocks dissolve when combined with water, and Insoluble is when
water does not chemically change their composition.
•Soil – Basic weathered down rocks, homeland for plants and trees, home to most
of mother natures critters.
•Weathering is the process by which rocks break down, Erosion is the process by
which the broken rock is moved in location. Working together in altering shape
of the earth by wearing it down and depositing it elsewhere.
•The Grand Canyon, located in Arizona, is a great example of weathering and
erosion in action.
•
 APPLICATIO Gravity takes its toll
with erosion as well.
So gravity weighs down
N on the earth, weighing
down on rocks that can
push down a hill and
create a landslide
or a mudslide.
Breaking and tearing
through objects in
their way, gravity is
In this picture, wind an undoubted agent of
is being an abrasive erosion.
property and overtime
has eaten away at this
rock formation.

It is said without weathering and erosion, there is no life. The universe would
come to a complete standstill. Asking myself where do effects originate?
Absolute definition, outside of the earth. Stop weathering – Stop the universe.
Convection Current : very slow movement of rock within
Earth's mantle caused by heating and cooling.
Epicenter : the point on Earth's surface directly above
the focus of an earthquake.
Fault : a crack in rock or soil along which there has been
movement caused by stress.
Focus : the point inside Earth which is the source of the
earthquake.
Lithosphere : outer solid portion of Earth including the
crust and uppermost mantle.
Mantle : the zone inside Earth between the solid outer
crust and the inner core.
Seismograph : a device for measuring and recording
vibrations from earthquakes.
Tsunamis : large ocean waves generated by major
earthquakes beneath the ocean floor. Tsunamis caused by
nearby earthquakes may reach the coast within minutes.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/search.php?ter
Tsunamis may also be generated by very large earthquakes
far away in other areas of the Pacific Ocean. Waves caused
by these earthquakes will reach California several hours
after the earthquake.
Gems : Special group of beautiful and hard to find
minerals; the rarer the gem the more precious it becomes.
Ores : Metal and non-metals that can be extracted and
used.
Metals : Conduct heat and electricity, ductile so they can
be drawn into wire; malleable so they can be hammered into
thin sheets.
Non - Metals : Characteristics are opposite than metals, not
shiny, ductile, nor malleable and do not conduct heat or
electricity well.
Root - pry : Growing roots exert pressure on solid until it
gives.
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