CIEN 3253

SEWERAGE, IRRIGATION AND

SANITARY ENGINEERING
1. Introducton to Sewerage Works and Engneerng
2. Water Envronment Management
a. Ouantty and Ouaty of Water
b. Ground Water
c. Coecton and Dstrbuton of Water
d. Treatment of Water
e. Water - Envronment Montorng Protecton
COURSE OUTLINE
3. Sewerage / Sewage System Management
a. Sewage Coecton System
. Combned System
. Separate System
. Others
b. Waste Water Treatment Process
c. Sudge Treatment Process
d. Inuent and Emuent Water Ouaty
e. Status and Process of Treatment n the Phppnes
COURSE OUTLINE
4. Irrgaton Engneerng
5. Santary Engneerng
6. Basc Pannng and Desgn
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Water Suppy and Sewerage
by: Meghee, 5
th edton
2.
Water Resources Engneerng
by: Franzn, 3rd edton
3.
Waste Water Engneerng
by: George Tchobanogous
4.
Ouaty Irrgaton Water
by: Shenberg
5.
Envronmenta Engneerng and Santaton
by: |oseph A. Savato
SUGGESTED REFERENCES
Topc I:
A. Source of Water Suppy
a. Surface Water
b. Ground Water
B. Treatment of Water
TOPICS FOR REPORTING
Topc II:
A. Coecton and Dstrbuton of Water
a. Watersheds
b. Reservors
c. Intakes
d. Other sources and coecton
e. Pumpng
f. Storage and storage requrements
g. Demand Estmates
h. Dstrbuton System Desgn Requrements
. Dstrbuton Systems
TOPICS FOR REPORTING
Topc III:
A. Sewage Coecton Systems
a. Combned System
b. Separate System
c. Others
TOPICS FOR REPORTING
Topc IV:
A. Waste Water Treatment Process
a. Inuent and Emuent Water Ouaty
B. Sudge Treatment Process
C. Status and Process of Treatment n the Phppnes
a. Rues and Laws beng mpemented n reaton to the
processes beng practced
TOPICS FOR REPORTING
Overview:
Santaton generay refers to the provson of factes and
servces for the safe dsposa of human urne and faeces.
Inadequate santaton s a ma|or cause of dsease wordwde
and mprovng santaton s known to have a sgncant
beneca mpact on heath both n househods and across
communtes.
The word santaton aso refers to the mantenance of
hygenc condtons through servces such as garbage coecton
and wastewater dsposa.
SANITATION
Human waste or excreta s smey, attracts es and s
persona. Uness t s managed ehectvey, dsease can spread
qucky, kng thousands.
Santaton s the process of preventng human, anma and
nsect contact wth excreta to avod spread of dseases.
Fact: One gram of faeces can contan 10 mon vruses, 1
mon bactera, 1 thousand parastes and about a hundred
worm eggs. So the danger of dsease s massve. When any
waste s exposed and cean water and hygene are mted, a
peope n the communty are vunerabe to ness caused by
faeces.
WHAT IS SANITATION?
Wthout a cean and safe toet cose to home, peope are
forced to ve n an unheathy and unpeasant envronment. Each
year, 1.8 mon chdren de and many more are sck wth
dseases such as choera, typhod and dysentery because of
uncean water and poor santaton.
Havng to go to the toet n the open or sharng factes wth
hundreds of others, partcuary f you are suherng wth darrhea,
s extremey embarrassng and unsafe for everyones heath.
Women and grs are especay dsadvantaged because they
often have to wt unt ts dark, whch can ead to ness or the
danger of attack.
IMPACT ON PEOPLES
LI!ES
Sckness takes chdren away from schoo and aduts from
earnng an ncome. Medca expenses make massve
demands on the mted ncomes of the poor.
Santaton enhances dgnty, prvacy and safety, especay
fro women and grs. Cean and safe toets and hand washng
factes at home and schoo hep chdrens abty to earn.
Improved heath heps women and men earn a vng.
Ehectve santaton means the envronment s safer and
ceaner for a actvtes - chdren can pay, food can be
prepared safey and homes can be kept ceaner.
IMPACT ON PEOPLES
LI!ES
A. Water Cyce and Geoogy
B. Sampng and Ouaty of Laboratory Data
C. Sampng Frequency
D. Interpretaton of Water Anayses
E. Tests
. Vrus Examnaton
. Physca Examnaton
F. Types of Examnatons Done
. Mcroscopc
. Chemca
G. Water Conservaton
"UANTITY AND "UALITY OF
WATER
Introducton:
A prmary requste for good heath s an
adequate suppy of water that s of:
a. Satsfactory santary quaty
b. Attractve and paatabe to nduce ts use
Otherwse, consumers may decde to use water of
doubtfu quaty from a nearby unprotected stream, we,
or sprng.
WATER SUPPLY
When a muncpa water suppy s not avaabe, the burden
of deveopng a safe water suppy rests wth the owner of the
property.
Frequenty, prvate suppes are so deveoped and operated
that fu protecton aganst dangerous or ob|ectonabe
pouton s not ahorded.
Faure to provde satsfactory water suppes n most
nstances must be charged ether neggence or gnorance,
because n the ong run, t generay costs no more to provde
satsfactory nstaaton that w meet wth good heath
department standards.
WATER SUPPLY
A. Water Cyce and Geoogy
B. Sampng and Ouaty of Laboratory Data
C. Sampng Frequency
D. Interpretaton of Water Anayses
E. Tests
. Vrus Examnaton
. Physca Examnaton
F. Types of Examnatons Done
. Mcroscopc
. Chemca
G. Water Conservaton
"UANTITY AND "UALITY OF
WATER
W#$er C%&'e #() Ge*'*+%
The movement of water can be best ustrated by the
hydroogc or water cyce.
Usng the couds and atmospherc vapors as a startng pont,
mosture condenses out under the proper condtons to from
ran, snow, seet, ha, frost, fog, or dew.
Part of the precptaton s evaporated whe fang; some of
t reaches vegetaton foage, the ground and other surfaces.
Mosture ntercepted by surfaces s evaporated back nto the
atmosphere.
WATER "UANTITY AND
"UALITY
Part of the water reachng the ground surface runs oh to
streams, akes, swamps, or oceans whence t evaporates;
parts ntrates nto the ground and percoates down to
repensh the ground water storage, whch aso suppes akes,
streams, and oceans by underground ow.
Ground water n the so heps to noursh vegetaton through
the root system. It traves up the pant and comes out as
transpraton from the eaf structure and then evaporates nto
the atmosphere.
In ts cycca movement, part of the water s temporary
retaned by the earth, pants and anmas to sustan fe.
WATER "UANTITY AND
"UALITY
When speakng of water, we are generay
concerned wth:
a. Surface Water
b. Ground Water
In fang from the atmosphere, ran pcks up dust
partces, pant seeds, bactera, dssoved gases,
onzng radaton, and chemca substances such as
sufur, ntrogen, oxygen, carbon doxde and
ammona. Hence ran water s not pure as one mght
thnk; t s however very soft.
WATER "UANTITY AND
"UALITY
Water n streams, akes, reservors and swamps s known as
surface water.
Water reachng the ground and owng over the surface carres
anythng t can move or dssove. Ths may ncude bactera, st,
so, vegetaton and mcroscopc pants and anmas.
The water accumuates n streams or akes. Sewage, ndustra
wastes and surface and ground water w cumuate, contrbute to
ow and be acted upon by natura agences.
Water owng over the ground may aso nd ts way to akes or
reservors where bactera, suspended matter and other mpurtes
sette out.
WATER "UANTITY AND
"UALITY
Part of the water reachng and owng over the
ground ntrates and percoates down to form the
ground water, aso caed underground water. In
percoatng through the ground, water w dssove
materas to an extent dependent on the type and
composton of the strata through whch the water
has passed and the quaty (acdty) and quantty of
water.
Ground water therefore contan more dssoved
mneras than surface water.
WATER "UANTITY AND
"UALITY
Casscatons and Characterstcs of Formatons:
1. Igneous Rocks

Formed by the coong and hardenng of moten rock

masses

These are crystane and contan quartz, fedspar,

mca, hornbende, pyroxene and ovne

Not usuay good sources of water. Athough basats

are exceptons

Sma quanttes of water are avaabe n cracks and

ssures
WATER "UANTITY AND
"UALITY
I+(e*,- R*&.-
/ASAL
T
I+(e*,- R*&.-
FELDSPA
R
I+(e*,- R*&.-
HORN/LEND
E
I+(e*,- R*&.-
MICA
I+(e*,- R*&.-
OLI!ENE
I+(e*,- R*&.-
PYRO0ENE
2. Sedmentary Formatons
Resuted from the deposton, accumuaton and then
consodaton of materas weathered and eroded from the
other rocks by water, ce or wnd and the remans of pants,
anmas or matera precptated out of souton
Exampes are: sand, grave, cay, st, chak, mestone,
fosss, gypsum, peat, shae, oess and sandstone
Deposts of sand and grave generay yed arge quanttes
of water
Sandstones, shaes and certan mestones may yed
abundant groundwater, athough resuts may be erratc
dependng on beddng panes and |onts, densty, porosty
and permeabty of the rock
WATER "UANTITY AND
"UALITY
Se)i1e($#r% F*r1#$i*(-
SEDIMENTARY
FORMATION
Se)i1e($#r% F*r1#$i*(-
GYPSUM
Se)i1e($#r% F*r1#$i*(-
LIMESTONE
Se)i1e($#r% F*r1#$i*(-
LOESS
Se)i1e($#r% F*r1#$i*(-
GO/I DESERT
SAND
Se)i1e($#r% F*r1#$i*(-
SANDSTONE
Se)i1e($#r% F*r1#$i*(-
SHALE
3. Metamorphc Rocks

Produced by the ateraton of gneous and

sedmentary rocks generay by means of heat and
pressure

Exampes are gnesses, schsts, quartztes, sates,

marbe, serpentnes and soapstones

A sma quantty of water s avaabe n |onts,

crevces and ceavage panes
WATER "UANTITY AND
"UALITY
Me$#1*r23i& R*&.-
GNEISS
Me$#1*r23i& R*&.-
MAR/LE
Me$#1*r23i& R*&.-
METAMORPHI
C "UART4ITE
Me$#1*r23i& R*&.-
"UART4ITE
Me$#1*r23i& R*&.-
SHISTS
Me$#1*r23i& R*&.-
SOAPSTONE
1. Porosty
Measure of the amount of water that can be hed by a
rock or so n ts pores or vods, expressed as
percentage of the tota voume
2. Ehectve Porosty or Specc Yed
The amount of water that w dran out of a saturated
rock or so by gravty
3. Specc Retenton
The amount of water retaned
Ths s due to water hed n the nterstces or pores of
the rock or so by moecuar attracton (coheson) and
by surface tenson (adheson)
RE!IEW 5 PROPERTIES
4. Permeabty

Expressed as the standard coemcent of permeabty

Rate of ow of water at 60F, n gaons per day,

through a cross secton of 1 ft
2 under a head of one foot per foot of
water traveed
RE!IEW 5 PROPERTIES
MATERIAL POROSITY 678
Sos 50 to 60
Cay 45 to 55
St 40 to 50
Sand, medum to course (0.5mm to 2.0mm) 35 to 40
Sand, ne to medum (0.25mm to 0.5mm) 30 to 35
Sand, unform 30 to 40
Grave and Sand (2.omm to 10.0mm) 20 to 35
Grave 30 to 40
Sandstone 10 to 20
Shae 1 to 10
Lmestone 1 to 10
Igneous Rock 1
RE!IEW 5 PROPERTIES
The ceanest avaabe sources of ground water
and surface water shoud be preserved and used for
potabe water suppy purposes.
Numerous parameters are used to determne the
sutabty of a water and the heath sgncance of
contamnants that may be found n the untreated
and treated water.
WATER "UALITY
Bactera, physca, chemca, and mcroscopc
examnatons are dscussed and nterpreted n ths
chapter under those respectve headngs.
Water quaty can be best assured by
mantanng water carty, a chorne resdua n the
dstrbuton system, conrmatory absence of
ndcator organsms, and ow bactera popuaton n
the dstrbuted water.
WATER "UALITY
The succeedng tabes show the reguatons that
drnkng water comng out of the tap served by a
pubc water system must meet.
These are based on the nterm prmary
reguatons deveoped under the Safe Drnkng
Water Act of 1974.
WATER "UALITY
T%2e *9
C*($#1i(#($
N#1e *9
C*($#1i(#($
T%2e *9 W#$er
S%-$e1
M#:i1,1 C*($#1i(#($ Leve'
IPDWR WHO Te($#$ive
Inorganc
Chemcas
Arsenc
Communty
.05 mg/ .05 mg/
Barum 1
Cadmum 0.01 0.01
Chromum 0.05
Lead 0.05 0.1
Mercury 0.002 0.001
Seenum 0.01 0.01
Sver 0.05
Fourde (Recommended)
53.7F & beow 2.4 0.9 to 1.7
53.8 to 58.3 2.2 0.8 to 1.5
58.4 to 63.8 2.0 0.8 to 1.3
63.9 to 70.6 1.8 0.7 to 1.2
70.7 to 79.2 1.6 .07 to 1.0
79.3 to 90.5 1.4 0.6 to 0.8
Ntrate (as N)
Communty & Non
communty
10 45 (as NO
3)
Cyande 0.05
C*12#ri-*( *9 I($eri1 Pri1#r%
Dri(.i(+ W#$er Re+,'#$i*(-
6IPDWR8 #() WHO I($er(#$i*(#'
W#$er Re+,'#$i*(-
T%2e *9
C*($#1i(#($
N#1e *9
C*($#1i(#($
T%2e *9 W#$er
S%-$e1
M#:i1,1 C*($#1i(#($ Leve'
IPDWR WHO Te($#$ive
Organc
Chemcas
Endrn
Communty
0.0002 mg/
Lndane 0.004
Methoxychor 0.1
Toxaphene 0.005
2, 4-D 0.1
2, 4, 5-TP, Sver 0.01
Turbdty
Turbdty at
representatve
entry pont to
dstrbuton
system
Communty and
Non communty
1 TU month average and 5 TU
average of two consecutve days (5
TU monthy average may appy at
state opton)
Choro-Organcs Trhaomethane
Greater than
10,000 popuaton
100 ppb
C*12#ri-*( *9 I($eri1 Pri1#r%
Dri(.i(+ W#$er Re+,'#$i*(-
6IPDWR8 #() WHO I($er(#$i*(#'
W#$er Re+,'#$i*(-
C*'i9*r1 Me$3*) Per M*($3
Le-- $3#( 2;
S#12'e- 2er M*($3
2; *r M*re S#12'e-
2er M*($3
N,1<er *9 C*'i9*r1 <#&$eri# -3#'' (*$ e:&ee)
Membrane Fter
(100 m portons)
1/100 m average
densty
4/100 m n one
sampe
4/100 m n 5 % of
sampes
C*'i9*r1 <#&$eri# -3#'' (*$ <e 2re-e($ i( 1*re $3#(
Mutpe tube
fermentaton
(10 m portons)
10% of portons
3 portons n one
sampe
3 portons n 5% of
sampes
M#:i1,1 Per1i--i<'e
Mi&r*<i*'*+i&#' C*($#1i(#($-
6IPDWR8=
C*'i9*r1 Me$3*) Per M*($3
Le-- $3#( 5
S#12'e- 2er M*($3
5 *r M*re S#12'e- 2er
M*($3
C*'i9*r1 <#&$eri# -3#'' (*$ <e 2re-e($ i( 1*re $3#(
Mutpe tube
fermentaton
(100 m portons)
60% of portons
5 portons n more
than one sampe
5 portons n more than 20% of
the sampes
*Internatona Standards for Drnkng Water, WHO states that "water crcuatng n the
dstrbuton system, whether treated or not, shoud not contan any organsms that may
be of faeca orgn."
A. Water Cyce and Geoogy
B. Sampng and Ouaty of Laboratory Data
C. Sampng Frequency
D. Interpretaton of Water Anayses
E. Tests
. Vrus Examnaton
. Physca Examnaton
F. Types of Examnatons Done
. Mcroscopc
. Chemca
G. Water Conservaton
"UANTITY AND "UALITY OF
WATER
A santary survey s necessary to determne the reabty of
a water system to contnuousy suppy safe and adequate water
to the consumer.
It s aso necessary to propery nterpret the resuts of water
anayses and to evauate the ehects of actua and potenta
sources of pouton on water quaty.
The vaue of the survey s dependent on the tranng and
experence of the person makng the nvestgaton.
When avaabe, one shoud seek the advce of the reguatory
agency santary engneer or santaran.
SAMPLING AND "UALITY OF
LA/ORATORY DATA
If the source of water s a ake, attenton woud be
drected to:
The entre dranage basn
Locaton of sewage and other sod and qud waste
dsposa or treatment systems
Bathng areas
Storm-water drans
Sewer outfas
Swamps
Cutvated areas
Pasture
Wooded areas n reference to the pump ntake
SAMPLING AND "UALITY OF
LA/ORATORY DATA
When water s obtaned from a stream or a
creek:
A and and habtaton from above the water suppy
ntake shoud be nvestgated
Inspecton of the entre watershed dranage area so
that actua and potenta sources of pouton can be
determned and propery evauated
A surface water suppes must be consdered of
doubtfu santary quaty uness gven adequate
treatment, dependng on the type and degree of
pouton receved.
SAMPLING AND "UALITY OF
LA/ORATORY DATA
Ground water suppes, such as wes or sprngs, shoud be
nvestgated wth a vew toward ndng ways whereby the
source mght be pouted.
A compete santary survey shoud ncude:
Inspecton of the aqufer dranage area
Land use and habtaton
Loca geoogy and vegetaton
Nature of so and rock strata
We ogs
Evdence of bastng
Sope of water tabe
Sources of pouton
Deveopment of source
SAMPLING AND "UALITY OF
LA/ORATORY DATA
The santary survey woud ncude:
The reservor
Intake
Pumpng staton
Treatment pant
Adequacy of each unt process
Operatons records
Dstrbuton system carryng capacty
Head osses
Pressures
Storage factes
Emergency source of water and pans to suppy water n emergency
Integrty of aboratory servces
Connectons wth other water suppes
Actua or possbe cross-connectons wth pumbng xtures, tanks, structures or
devces that mght permt back -sphonage or backow
SAMPLING AND "UALITY OF
LA/ORATORY DATA
Water sampes are coected as an ad|unct to the santary
survey as an ad n measurng the quaty of raw water and
ehectveness of treatment gven the water.
Bacteroogca examnatons, chemca and physca
anayses, and mcroscopc examnatons may be made
dependng on:
Sources of water
Cmate
Geoogy
Hydroogy
Waste dsposa practces on the watershed
SAMPLING AND "UALITY OF
LA/ORATORY DATA
A santary technque and a gass or pastc stere
botte supped and prepared by the aboratory for the
purpose shoud be used when coectng water sampe for
a bacteroogca examnaton.
1. The hands or faucet must not touch the edge of the p
of the botte or the pug part of the stopper.
2. The sampe shoud be taken from a cean faucet that
does not have an aerator or screen and that s not
eakng or causng condensaton on the outsde.
3. Let the water run for about 10 mnutes to get a
representatve sampe.*
SAMPLING AND "UALITY OF
LA/ORATORY DATA
*If a sampe from a ake or stream s desred, the botte
shoud be dpped beow the surface wth a forward
sweepng moton so that water comng n contact wth the
hands w not enter the botte.
When coectng sampes of chornated water, the sampe
botte shoud contan sodum thosufate to dechornate
the water.
It s recommended that a sampes be examned prompty
after coecton and wthn 6 to 12 hours f possbe.
SAMPLING AND "UALITY OF
LA/ORATORY DATA
A. Water Cyce and Geoogy
B. Sampng and Ouaty of Laboratory Data
C. Sampng Frequency
D. Interpretaton of Water Anayses
E. Tests
. Vrus Examnaton
. Physca Examnaton
F. Types of Examnatons Done
. Mcroscopc
. Chemca
G. Water Conservaton
"UANTITY AND "UALITY OF
WATER
The frequency wth whch source and dstrbuton
system water sampes are coected and used for
bacteroogc, chemca, radoogc, mcroscopc, and
physca anayses s usuay determned by the
reguatory agency.
Operators of pubc water systems, and operators of
ndustra ad commerca water systems, w want to
coect more frequent but carefuy seected sampes and
make more anayses to detect changes n raw water
quaty to better contro treatment and pant operaton.
SAMPLING FRE"UENCY
SAMPLING FRE"UENCY
TA/LE
A. Water Cyce and Geoogy
B. Sampng and Ouaty of Laboratory Data
C. Sampng Frequency
D. Interpretaton of Water Anayses
E. Tests
. Vrus Examnaton
. Physca Examnaton
F. Types of Examnatons Done
. Mcroscopc
. Chemca
G. Water Conservaton
"UANTITY AND "UALITY OF
WATER
The nterpretaton of water anayss s based prmary
on a santary survey of the water suppy.
A water suppy that s coaguated and tered woud
be expected to be practcay cear, cooress, and free of
ron, whereas the presence of some turbdty, coor, and
ron n an untreated surface water suppy may be
accepted as norma.
INTERPRETATION OF WATER
ANALYSIS
/#&$eri#' E:#1i(#$i*( > T3e S$#()#r) P'#$e C*,($
The test s of sgncance when used n comparatve
purposes under known or controed condtons to show
changes form the norm.
It can montor changes n the quaty of the water n the
dstrbuton system and storage reservors.
It can be used to detect the presence of Pseudomonas
favobacterium and other secondary nvaders that coud
pose a heath rsk n the hospta envronment .
It can ca attenton to mtatons of coform test when the
average standard of pate counts n a month exceeds 100 to
500 m.
INTERPRETATION OF WATER
ANALYSIS SUMMARY
/#&$eri#' E:#1i(#$i*( > T3e S$#()#r) P'#$e C*,($
It can show the ehectveness of dstrbuton system
resdua chorne and possbe ter break-through.
It aso shows dstrbuton system deteroraton, man
growth and sedment accumuaton.
Large tota bactera popuatons may support or
suppress growth of coform organsms.
Taste, odor, or coor compants may aso be assocated
wth bactera or other growths n mans or surface
water sources
INTERPRETATION OF WATER
ANALYSIS SUMMARY
/#&$eri#' E:#1i(#$i*( > T3e S$#()#r) P'#$e C*,($
The standard pate count s the tota coones of
bactera deveopng from measured portons (2 - 1 m and
2 - 1/10 m) of the water beng tested, whch have been
panted n petr dshes wth a sutabe cuture meda (agar),
and ncubated for 48 hours at 35C.
For botted water, ncubate at 35Cfor 72 hours.
Drnkng water w normay contan some
nonpathogenc bactera; t amost never stere.
INTERPRETATION OF WATER
ANALYSIS SUMMARY
Te-$- I()i&#$i(+ C*($#1i(#$i*(
The bactera examnaton of drnkng water shoud aways
ncude a quanttatve examnaton of tota organsms of the
coform groups, whch are ndcatve of faeca
contamnaton of sewage pouton.
The tota coform group of organsms ncude eschersha,
kebsea, and ctrobacter-enterobacter bactera.
Coform bactera are not normay consdered dsease
organsms. However, pathogenc strans of Eschercha co
have caused outbreaks n nurseres, nsttutons, and
communtes, assocated wth food and water.
INTERPRETATION OF WATER
ANALYSIS SUMMARY
Te-$- I()i&#$i(+ C*($#1i(#$i*(
The test for E. co (at 35C) s recommended as beng
more specc ndcator of faeca contamnaton n
countres such as:
Denmark
Begum
Engand
France
More detaed aboratory procedures are needed to
dentfy E. co and the enteropathogenc E. co.
INTERPRETATION OF WATER
ANALYSIS SUMMARY
A. Water Cyce and Geoogy
B. Sampng and Ouaty of Laboratory Data
C. Sampng Frequency
D. Interpretaton of Water Anayses
E. Tests
. Vrus Examnaton
. Physca Examnaton
F. Types of Examnatons Done
. Mcroscopc
. Chemca
G. Water Conservaton
"UANTITY AND "UALITY OF
WATER
!ir,- E:#1i(#$i*(
The examnaton of water for vruses has not yet been
smped to the pont where the test can be made
routney as for coform.
A arge voume of water must be samped and an
ehectve system used to concentrate the vruses.
TESTS
P3%-i&#' E:#1i(#$i*(-
O)*r:
Odor shoud be absent or very fant for water to be
acceptabe, not greater than 3 Threshod Odor Number
Water for food processng, beverages, and
pharmaceutca manufacture shoud be essentay free
of taste and odor.
The test s very sub|ectve, beng dependent on the
ndvdua senses of sme and taste.
TESTS
O)*r:
The cause may be decayng organc matter,
wastewater ncudng ndustra wastes, dssoved
gases, and chorne n combnaton wth certan organc
compounds such as phenos.
Odors are sometmes confused wth tastes.
Carbon adsorpton or aeraton w usuay remove
odors.
TESTS
T#-$e:
The taste of water shoud not be ob|ectonabe for
otherwse the consumer w resort to other sources of
water whch mght not be satsfactory santary quaty.
Agae, decomposng organc matter, dssoved gases,
hgh concentratons of sufates, chordes, and ron, or
ndustra wastes may cause tastes and odors.
TESTS
T#-$e:
Bone and sh o and petroeum products such as
kerosene and gasone are partcuary ob|ectonabe.
Phenos n concentratons of 0.2 ppb n combnaton
wth chorne w mpart a phenoc or medcna taste
to drnkng water.
The taste test, ke the odor test, s very sub|ectve and
may be dangerous to aboratory personne.
TESTS
T,r<i)i$%:
The Natona Interm Prmary Drnkng Water Reguatons
(NIPDWR) requre that the maxmum contamnaton eve for
turbdty not exceed one turbdty unt as determned by a
monthy average.
A two-day turbdty average may not exceed ve turbdty
unts.
A monthy average of ve turbdty unts may be permtted by
the reguatory agency f t can be demonstrated that the
turbdty does not nterfere wth dsnfecton, the mantenance
of a chorne resdua throughout the dstrbuton system, or
the coform determnaton. (See Tabe for Turbdty)
TESTS
T,r<i)i$%:
The pubc demands a sparkng cear water.
Ths mpes a turbdty ess than 1 unt; a eve of ess
than 0.1 unt, whch s obtanabe when water s
coaguated, setted, and tered, s practca.
Turbdty s a good measure of sedmentaton, traton,
and storage emcency, partcuary f suppemented by
the tota mcroscopc count.
TESTS
T,r<i)i$%:
Increased chorne resdua and bacteroogca
sampng of the dstrbuton system s ndcated when
the maxmum contamnant eve for turbdty s
exceeded n the dstrbuton system, unt the cause s
determned or emnated.
Turbdty w nterfere wth proper dsnfecton of water,
harbor vruses, and cause tastes and odors.
TESTS
T,r<i)i$%:
Turbdty s a good measure of sedmentaton, traton,
and storage emcency, partcuary f suppemented by
the tota mcroscopc count.
Increased chorne resdua and bacteroogca
sampng of the dstrbuton system s ndcated when
the maxmum contamnant eve for turbdty s
exceeded n the dstrbuton system, unt the cause s
determned or emnated.
TESTS
C*'*r:
Coor shoud be ess than 15 coor unts, athough
persons accustomed to cear water may notce a
coorof ony 5 unts.
Water for ndustra uses shoud generay have a coor
of 5 to 10 or ess.
Coor s caused by substances n souton, known as
true coor, and by substances n suspenson, mosty
organcs causng organc coor.
TESTS
C*'*r:
Coor resutng from the presence of organcs n water
may aso cause taste, nterfere wth chornaton,
nduce bactera growth, make water unusabe by
certan ndustres wthout further treatment, fou
anon-exchange resns, nterfere wth coormetrc
anayss, mt aquatc productvty by absorbng
photosynthetc ght, render ead n ppes soube, hod
ron and manganese n souton causng coor and
stanng of aundry and pumbng xtures, and nterfere
wth chemca coaguaton.
TESTS
C*'*r:
Coor can be controed at the source by watershed
management.
Invoved s dentfyng waters from sources contrbutng
natura organc coor and exudng them, controng
beaver popuatons, ncreasng water ow gradents,
usng settng basns at nets to reservors, and
bendng of water.
TESTS
Te12er#$,re:
The water temperature shoud be preferaby be ess
than 60F.
Ground waters and surface waters from mountanous
areas are generay n the temperature range of 50F
to 60F.
Desgn and constructon of water systems shoud
provde for buryng or coverng of transmsson mans
to keep drnkng water coo and to prevent freezng n
cod cmates or eaks due to vehcuar tramc.
TESTS
A. Water Cyce and Geoogy
B. Sampng and Ouaty of Laboratory Data
C. Sampng Frequency
D. Interpretaton of Water Anayses
E. Tests
. Vrus Examnaton
. Physca Examnaton
F. Types of Examnatons Done
. Mcroscopc
. Chemca
G. Water Conservaton
"UANTITY AND "UALITY OF
WATER
Mi&r*-&*2i& E:#1i(#$i*(
Mcroscopc organsms that may be found n drnkng water sources
ncudes:
Bactera
Agae
Actnomycetes
Protozoa
Roters
Yeasts
Mods
Sma crustacea
Worms
mtes
E0AMINATIONS
Mcroscopc examnatons nvoves coecton of water
sampes from speced ocatons and depths.
The sampe s preserved by the addton of
formadehyde f not taken mmedatey to the aboratory.
At the aboratory, the pankton sampe s concentrated
by means of a centrfuge or a Sedgewck-Rafter ter. A 1
m sampe of the concentrate s then paced n a
Sedgewck-Rafter countng ce for enumeraton usng a
compound mcroscope tted wth a Whppe ocuar
mcrometer
E0AMINATIONS
Examnatons of surface water sources, or water man
and we-water suppes whch are sources of dmcuty,
shoud be made weeky to observe trends and to
determne the need for treatment or the other contros
and ther ehectveness.
The measure of concentraton of mcroorgansms
present s the "area standard unt". It represents an
area of 20 mcrons (m) square or 400 m
2.
E0AMINATIONS
C3e1i&#' E:#1i(#$i*(
Resuts are reported as mgrams per ter (mg/)
whch for a practca purposes can be taken to be the
same as parts per mon (ppm) except when the
concentratons of substances n souton approach or
exceed 7000 mg/, when a densty correcton shoud be
made.
E0AMINATIONS
H#r)(e--
Hardness s due prmary to cacum and magnesum
carbonates and bcarbonates (carbonate hardness, whch
can be removed by heatng) and cacum sufate, cacum
chorde, magnesum sufate and magnesum chorde
(noncarbonate hardness, whch cannot be removed by
heatng).
In genera, water softer than 50 mg/ s corrosve,
whereas waters harder than 80 mg/ ead to use more
soap.
E0AMINATIONS
Lead, cadmum, znc, and copper n souton are
assocated wth soft water.
In addton to beng ob|ectonabe for aundry and
other washng purposes by causng curdng of soap,
excessve hardness contrbutes to the deteroraton of
fabrcs. Hard water s not sutabe for the producton of
ce, soft drnks, fets, textes.
E0AMINATIONS
O$3er 2r*2er$ie- #))re--e) <% &3e1i&#'
e:#1i(#$i*(
Akanty
pH
Corrosvty
Carbon Doxde
Dssoved Oxygen
Lead
Copper
Znc
Chordes of Mnera Orgn
Chordes of Intestna Orgn
E0AMINATIONS
O$3er 2r*2er$ie- #))re--e) <% &3e1i&#'
e:#1i(#$i*( 6&*($)?8
Iron
Manganese
Sodum
Sufates
Tota Dssoved Sods
Fourdes
Methyene Bue Actve Substances
Oxygen-consumed Vaue
Free Amona
Abumnod Ammona
E0AMINATIONS
O$3er 2r*2er$ie- #))re--e) <% &3e1i&#'
e:#1i(#$i*( 6&*($)?8
Ntrtes
Ntrates
Hydrogen Sude
Phosphorus
Mercury
Arsenc
Barum
Seenum
Cadmum
Chromum
E0AMINATIONS
O$3er 2r*2er$ie- #))re--e) <% &3e1i&#' e:#1i(#$i*(
6&*($)?8
Aumnum
Cyande
Asbestos
Sver
Specc Conductance
Radoactvty
Urany Iron
Phenos
Carbon-Choroform Extract (CCE) and Carbon-Acoho Extract
(CAE)
Pestcdes
E0AMINATIONS
O$3er 2r*2er$ie- #))re--e) <% &3e1i&#'
e:#1i(#$i*( 6&*($)?8
Poynucear Aromatc Hydrocarbons
Poychornated Bphenys (PCBs)
Other Synthetc Chemcas
Ouantty
E0AMINATIONS
A'.#'i(i$%
The akanty of water passng through ron dstrbuton systems shoud
be n the range of 30 to 100 mg/, as CaCO3, to prevent serous
corroson
up to 500 mg/ s acceptabe, athough ths factor must be apprased
from the standard pont of pH, hardness, carbon doxde, and
dssoved-oxygen content
Corroson of ron ppe s prevented by the mantenance of cacum-
carbonate stabty. The goa, accordng to the Amercan Water Works
Assocaton "s a measure of akanty decrease or ncrease n the
dstrbuton system, and aso after 12 hr at 130F n a cosed pastc
botte, foowed by traton."
E0AMINATIONS
A'.#'i(i$%
Potassum carbonate, potassum bcarbonate,
magnesum carbonate, and magnesum bcarbonate
cause hardness as we as akanty. Sumcent akanty
s needed n water to react wth added aum to form a
oc n water coaguaton. Insumcent akanty w
cause aum to reman n souton
Bathng or washng n water of excessve akanty can
change the pH eve of the acrma ud around the eye,
causng eye rrtaton.
E0AMINATIONS
2H
The pH vaues of natura water range from about 5.0 to 8.5 and
are acceptabe except when vewed from the standard of
corroson.
The pH s a measure of acdty or akanty, usng a scae of 0.0 to
14.0, wth 7.0 beng the neutra pont.
The bactercda, vrucda, and cystcda emcency of chorne as
a dsnfectant ncreases wth the decrease of pH. The pH
determnaton n water havng an akanty of ess than 20 mg/ by
usng coor ndcators s naccurate; use the eectromagnetc
method.
E0AMINATIONS
2H
The ranges of pH coor ndcator soutons are:
methy orange: 3.0 to 4.4
bromcreso green 3.8 to 5.4
methy red 4.4 to 6.2
bromcreso purpe 5.2 to 6.8
bromthymo bue 6.0 to 7.6
pheno red6.8 to 8.4
creso red 7.2 to 8.8
thymo bue 8.0 to 9.6
Phenophthaen 8.2 to 10.0
E0AMINATIONS
2H
Waters contanng more than 1.0 mg/ chorne n any form
must be dechornated wth 1 or 2 drops of sodum thosufate
before addng the pH ndcator souton. Ths s necessary to
prevent the ndcator souton from beng beached or
decoorzed by the chorne and gvng an erroneous readng
The germcda actvty s greaty reduced at a pH eve above
8.5 and corroson s assocated wth pH eves beow 6.5
The formaton of trhaomethanes s sgncanty ncreased at
pH above 8.5
E0AMINATIONS
C*rr*-ivi$%
Corrosvty of water s reated to ts pH, akanty, hardness, dssoved
oxygen, tota dssoved sods, and other factors
Snce a smpe, rapd test for corrosvty s not avaabe, test ppe
sectons or meta coupons (90-day test) are used suppemented
where possbe by water anayses such as cacum carbonate
saturaton and tests of akanty and pH, and dssoved sods and
gases
The corroson of copper tubng ncreases partcuary when carryng
water above 140F. Schroeder reports that pewter, brtanna meta,
water ppes, and csterns may contan antmony, ead, cadmum and
tn whch may each out n the presence of soft water or acd uds
E0AMINATIONS
C*rr*-ivi$%
Soft water owng over gavanzed ron roofs, through
gavanzed ron ppes, or stored n gavanzed tanks
contan cadmum and znc
Ceramc vesses contan antmony, beryum, barum,
ncke, and zrconum; pottery gazes contan ead, a
of whch may be eached out f rng and gazng s not
proper. Corrosvty s controed by pH, akanty, and
cacum carbonate ad|ustment, use of chemcas, and
other means
E0AMINATIONS
C#r<*( Di*:i)e
The ony mtaton on carbon doxde s that
pertanng to corroson. It shoud be ess than 10
mg/
but when akanty s ess than 100 mg/, the CO2
concentraton shoud not exceed 5.0 mg/.
E0AMINATIONS
Di--*'ve) O:%+e(
Water devod of dssoved oxygen frequenty has a "at"
taste, athough many attractve we waters are devod of
oxygen
In genera, t s preferabe for the dssoved oxygen content to
exceed 2.5 to 3.0 mg/ to avod secondary tastes and odors
from deveopng and to support sh fe
Game sh requre a dssoved oxygen of at east 5.0 mg/ to
reproduce, and ether de oh or mgrate when the dssoved
oxygen fas beow 3.0 mg/.
E0AMINATIONS
Le#)
The acceptabe concentraton of ead n potabe water s 0.05 mg/
It s a cumuatve poson. Concentratons exceedng ths vaue
occur when acd waters of ow mnera content are pped through
ead ppe; znc gavanzed ron ppe, copper ppe |onts, and brass
ppe may aso contrbute ead
The use of ead ppe to conduct drnkng water shoud be
prohbted. Lead, as we as cadmum, znc, and copper, are
dssoved by carbonated beverages whch are hghy charged wth
carbon doxde
E0AMINATIONS
Le#)
Lmestone, gaena, and food are natura sources of ead.
Man-made sources are motor vehce exhaust ead, certan
ndustra wastes, mnes and smeters, ead pants, gazes,
car battery savage operatons, cosmetcs, and agrcutura
sprays. Faout from arborne poutants may aso contrbute
sgncant concentratons of ead to water suppy reservors
and dranage basns
Ony 10 percent of the ead ngested n water s absorbed;
neary haf of the amount absorbed by urban dweers
comes from ar.
E0AMINATIONS
C*22er
Copper content shoud be ess than 1.0 mg/
Concentratons of ths magntude are not present n natura
waters, but may be due to the corroson of copper or brass
ppng; 0.5 mg/ n soft water stans porcean bue-green
A concentraton n excess of 0.2 to 0.3 mg/ w cause an
"oh" avor n cohee and tea; 1 to 1.5 mg/ resuts n btter
metac taste; 1 mg/ mat ahect m and reacts wth soap to
produce a green coor n water, 0.25 to 1.0 mg/ s toxc to
sh
E0AMINATIONS
C*22er
Copper appears to be essenta for a forms of fe; but
excessve amounts comng mosty from food
Copper decency s assocated wth anema
Copper sats are commony used to contro aga growths
n reservors and sme growths n water systems
Copper can be removed by on exchange and, when
caused by corroson of copper ppes, by proper pH contro
E0AMINATIONS
4i(&
The concentraton of znc n drnkng water shoud
not exceed 1.0 mg/. Znc s dssoved by surface
water
A greasy m forms n surface water contanng
0.5 mg/ or more znc. More than 5.0 mg/ causes
metac btter taste and 25 to 40 mg/ may cause
nausea and vomtng
E0AMINATIONS
4i(&
Znc may contrbute to the corrosveness of water.
Common sources of znc n drnkng water are brass and
gavanzed ron ppe
Znc from znc oxde n automobe tres s a sgncant
poutant to urban runoh. The rato of znc to cadmum
may aso be of pubc heath mportance
Znc decency s assocated wth dwarsm and
hypogoncdsm
E0AMINATIONS
C3'*ri)e- *9 Mi(er#' Ori+i(
The permssbe chorde content of water depends on
the senstvty of the consumer. Many peope notce a
bracksh taste mparted by 100 mg/ of chordes,
whereas others are satsed wth concentratons as
hgh as 250 mg/
When the chorde s n the form of sodum chorde,
use of the water for drnkng may be nadvsabe for
persons who are under medca care for certan forms
of heart dsease
E0AMINATIONS
C3'*ri)e- *9 Mi(er#' Ori+i(
Hard water softened by the on exchange or me-soda
process (Na2CO3) w ncrease the concentratons of
sodum n the water
Sat used for hghway decng may contamnate
groundwater and surface water suppes. Its use shoud
be curtaed and storage depots covered
Chorde can be removed from water by dstaton,
reverse osmoss, or eectrodayss
E0AMINATIONS
C3'*ri)e- *9 I($e-$i(#' Ori+i(
Natura waters remote from the nuence of ocean or sat
deposts and not nuenced by oca sources of pouton
have a ow chorde content - usuay ess than 4.0 mg/.
Due to the extensve sat deposts n certan parts of the
country, t s mpractca to assgn chorde concentraton,
that, when exceeded, ndcate the presence of sewage,
agrcutura, or ndustra pouton, uness a chorde
record over an extended perod of tme s kept on each
water suppy
E0AMINATIONS
Ir*(
Water shoud have a soube ron content of ess
than 0.1 mg/ to prevent reddsh-brown stanng of
aundry, fountans, and pumbng xtures
Some stanng of pumbng xtures may occur at
0.05 mg/. precptated ferrc hydroxde may cause
a sght turbdty n water that can be ob|ectonabe
and cause coggng of ters and softener resn
beds
E0AMINATIONS
Ir*(
In combnaton wth manganese, concentratons n
excess of 0.3 mg/ cause compants. Iron n
excess of 1.0 mg/ w cause an unpeasant taste.
A concentraton of about 1 mg/ s notceabe n
the taste of cohee or tea
Chorne w precptate soube ron. Iron s an
essenta eement for human heath
E0AMINATIONS
S*)i,1
The Amercan Heart Assocatons 500-mg-sodum-per-day det recommends
that dsted water be used f the water suppy contans more than 20 mg/ of
sodum
The consumpton of 2.5 ters of water per day s assumed. Water contanng
more than 270 mg/ sodum shoud not be used for drnkng by those on a
moderatey restrcted sodum det
Many groundwater suppes and most home-softened (usng on exchange) we
waters contan too much sodum for persons on sodum-restrcted dets. If the
we water s ow n sodum (ess than 20 mg/ sodum) and the water s
softened by the on-exchange process because of excessve hardness, the
house cod-water system can be supped by a ne from the we that bypasses
the softener and ow-sodum water can be made avaabe at cod-water taps
E0AMINATIONS
S*)i,1
A aboratory anayss s necessary to determne the exact
amount of sodum n water. Persons suherng from hear,
kdney, or crcuatory ness shoud be guded by ther
physcans advce
A maxmum drnkng water standard of 100 mg/ has been
proposed for the genera popuaton
Common sources of sodum n addton to food are certan
we waters, on-exchange water softenng unts, water
treatment chemcas and road sat
E0AMINATIONS
S,'9#$e-
Sufates shoud not exceed 250 mg/, athough ths woud have
to be moded wth zeote softenng where cacum sufate or
gypsum s repaced by an equa concentraton of sodum sufate
Sodum sufate (or Gauber sats) n excess of 200 mg/,
magnesum sufate or (Epsom sats) n excess of 390 mg/, and
cacum sufate n excess of 600 to 800 mg/ are axatve to
those not accustomed to the water
Magnesum sufate causes hardness; sodum sufate causes
foamng n steam boers
E0AMINATIONS
S,'9#$e-
Sufates shoud not exceed 250 mg/, athough ths woud have
to be moded wth zeote softenng where cacum sufate or
gypsum s repaced by an equa concentraton of sodum sufate
Sodum sufate (or Gauber sats) n excess of 200 mg/,
magnesum sufate or (Epsom sats) n excess of 390 mg/, and
cacum sufate n excess of 600 to 800 mg/ are axatve to
those not accustomed to the water
Magnesum sufate causes hardness; sodum sufate causes
foamng n steam boers
E0AMINATIONS
T*$#' Di--*'ve) S*'i)- 6TDS8
The tota sod content shoud be ess than 500 mg/; however,
ths s based on the ndustra uses of pubc water suppes not
on pubc heath factors
Hgher concentratons may cause physoogca ehects and taste
Dssoved sods can be removed by dstaton, reverse osmoss,
eectrodayss, or on exchange
Water wth more than 1000 mg/ of dssoved sods s cassed as
"sane" rrespectve of the mneras present
E0AMINATIONS
F',*ri)e-
Fuordes are found n many groundwaters as a natura
consttuent, rangng from a trace to 5 or more mg/. ourdes
n conctratons greater than 3 mg/ can cause the teeth of
chdren to be motted and dscoored dependng on the
concentraton and amount of water consumed
Drnkng water contanng 0.8 to 1.7 mg/ natura or added
uorde s beneca to chdren durng the perod they are
deveopng permanent teeth
An optmum eve s 1.0 mg/ n temperate cmates
E0AMINATIONS
F',*ri)e-
The ncdence of denta cavtes or tooth decay s reduced by about 60
percent
The maxmum permssbe concentraton n drnkng water has been
estabshed n the Natona Interm Prmary Drnkng Water Reguatons
at 1.4 to 2.4 mg/ dependng on the annua average of the maxmum
day ar temperatures for the ocaton n whch the communty water
system s ocated
Fuorde remova methods ncude on exchange, reverse osmoss,
me softenng, and actvated aumna and trcacum phosphate
adsorpton. It s not possbe to reduce the uorde to 1mg/ usng ony
me
E0AMINATIONS
Me$3%'e(e /',e A&$ive S,<-$#(&e- 6M/AS8
The test for MBAS aso shows the presence of aky benzene sufonate
(ABS), near akyate sufonate (LAS), and reated materas that react
wth methyene bue. It s a measure of the apparent detergent
present
The composton of detergents vares. Househod wash water n whch
ABS s the actve agent n the detergent may contan 200 to 1000 mg/
ABS has been argey repaced by LAS, whch can be degraded under
aerobc condtons; f not degraded t too w foam. Both ABS and LAS
detergents contan phosphates that may fertze pant fe n akes
and streams
E0AMINATIONS
Me$3%'e(e /',e A&$ive S,<-$#(&e- 6M/AS8
The decay of pants w use oxygen, eavng ess for sh fe and
wastewater oxdaton. Because of these ehects, the use of
detergents contanng phosphates have been banned n some
areas
In any case, the presence of MBAS n a we-water suppy s an
ndcaton of contamnaton, the source of whch shoud be
dented and removed, even though t has not been found to be of
heath sgncance n the concentratons found n drnkng water
Carbon adsorpton can be used to remove MBAS from drnkng
water
E0AMINATIONS
O:%+e(5&*(-,1e) !#',e
Ths represents organc matter that s oxdzed by potassum
permanganate under the test condtons
Pouton sgncant form a bacteroogca examnaton standpont
s accompaned by so tte organc matter as not to sgncanty
rase the oxygen-consumed vaue
For exampe, natura waters contanng swamp dranage have
much hgher oxygen-consumed vaues than water of ow orgna-
organc content that are sub|ect to bactera pouton
Ths test s of mted sgncance
E0AMINATIONS
Free A11*(i#
Free ammona represents the rst product of the decomposton of
organc matter; thus apprecabe concentratons of free ammona
usuay ndcate "fresh pouton" of santary sgncance
The excepton s when ammonum sufate of mnera orgn s
nvoved
The foowng vaues may be of genera sgncance n apprasng
free ammona content:
Low: 0.015 to 0.03 mg/
Moderate: 0.03 to 0.10 mg/
Hgh: 0.10 mg/ or greater
E0AMINATIONS
Free A11*(i#
Speca care must be exercsed to aow for
ammona added f the "chorne-ammona"
treatment of water s used or f crenothrx
organsms are present
Ammona n the range of 0.2 to 2.0 mg/ s toxc to
many sh; 0.2 mg/ for ranbow trout
E0AMINATIONS
A'<,1i(*i) A11*(i#
Abumnod ammona represents "compex" organc matter and
thus woud be present n reatvey hgh concentraton n water
supportng agae growth, recevng forest dranage, or contanng
other organc matter
Concentratons of abumnod ammona hgher than about 0.15
mg/, therefore, shoud be apprased n the ght of orgn
The foowng concentratons serve as a gude:
Low: ess than 0.06 mg/
Moderate: 0.06 to 0.15 mg/
Hgh: 0.15 mg/ or greater
E0AMINATIONS
Ni$ri$e-
Ntrtes represent the rst product of oxdaton of
free ammona by bochemca actvty
Unpouted natura waters contan practcay no
ntrates, so concentratons exceedng the very ow
vaue of 0.001 mg/ are of santary sgncance,
ndcatng water sub|ect to pouton that s n the
process of change assocated wth natura
purcaton
E0AMINATIONS
Ni$ri$e-
The ntrte concentraton present s due to the
organc matter n the so through whch the water
passes
Ntrtes n concentratons greater than 1 mg/ n
drnkng water are hazardous to nfants and
shoud not be used for nfant feedng
E0AMINATIONS
Ni$r#$e-
Ntrates represent the na product of bochemca oxdaton of ammona
Its presence s probaby due to the presence of ntrogenous organc
matter of anma and, to some extent, vegetabe orgn, for ony sma
quanttes are naturay present n water
Septc tank systems may contrbute ntrates to the groundwater
Manure and fertzer contan arge concentratons of ntrates; thus the
exstence of fertzed eds or catte feedots near sources of suppy
must be carefuy consdered n apprasng the sgncance of ntrate
content
E0AMINATIONS
Ni$r#$e-
Furthermore, a cesspoo may be reatvey cose to a we and be
contrbutng pouton wthout resutng hgh-ntrate content, because
the anaerobc condtons n the cesspoo woud prevent bochemca
oxdaton of ammona to ntrates
In fact, ntrates may be reduced to ntrtes under such condtons. In
genera, however, ntrates dscose the evdence of "prevous"
pouton of water that has been moded by sef-purcaton
processes to a na mnera form
Aowng for these mportant controng factors the foowng ranges n
concentraton may be used as a gude: ow - ess than 0.1 mg/;
moderate - 0.1 to 1.0 mg/; hgh - greater than 1.0 mg/.
E0AMINATIONS
Ni$r#$e-
The presence of more than 10 mg/ of ntrate expressed as ntrogen,
the maxmum contamnant eve n drnkng water, appears to be
the cause of methemogobnema or "bue babes." The standard
was formery expressed as 45 mg/ as ntrate
Methemogobnema s argey a dsease conned to nfants ess
than three months od, but may ahect chdren up to age sx. The
bong of water contanng ntrates woud ncrease the concentraton
of ntrates n water.
Ntrates may stmuate the growth of water pants, partcuary agae
f other nutrents such as phosphorous and carbon are present.
E0AMINATIONS
H%)r*+e( S,'@)e
Hydrogen sude s most frequenty found n ground waters as a natura
consttuent and s easy dented by rotten-egg odor
It s caused by mcroba acton on organc matter or the reducton of
sufate ons to sude
A concentraton of 10 mg/ s an rrtant, but 700 mg/ s hghy posonous.
In hgh concentraton t parayzes the sense of sme, thereby makng t
more dangerous
Back stans on aundered cothes and back deposts n ppng and on
pumbng xtures are caused by hydrogen sude n the presence of soube
ron. Hydrogen sude n drnkng water shoud not exceed 0.05 mg/
E0AMINATIONS
P3*-23*r,-
Hgh phosphorus concentratons together wth
ntrates and organc carbon are sometmes
assocated wth heavy aquatc pant growth,
athough other substances n water aso have an
ehect
Uncontamnated waters contan 10 to 30 g/ tota
phosphorus, athough hgher concentratons of
phosphorus are aso found n "cean" waters
E0AMINATIONS
P3*-23*r,-
Concentratons assocated wth nusances n akes woud not
normay cause probems n owng streams
About 100 g/ compex phosphates nterfere wth coaguaton
Phosphorus from septc tank subsurface absorpton system
emuents s not ready transmtted through sandy so and
groundwater
Most waterways naturay contan ntrogen and phosphorus to
support massve agae booms
E0AMINATIONS
Mer&,r%
Epsodes assocated wth the consumpton of methymercury-
contamnated sh, bread, bread, pork, and seed have caed
attenton to the possbe contamnaton of drnkng water
Mercury s found n nature n the eementa and organc form.
Concentratons n unpouted waters are normay ess than 1.0 g/
The organc methymercury and other akymercury compounds are
hghy toxc, ahectng the centra nervous system and kdneys.
The maxmum permssbe contamnant eve n drnkng water s 2.0
g/ (0.002 mg/) as tota mercury
E0AMINATIONS
Ar-e(i&
Arsenc s sometmes found n drnkng water. Sources of arsenc
are natura rock formatons (phosphate rock), ndustra wastes,
arsenc pestcdes, fertzers, and detergent "presoaks," and
possby other detergents
It s aso found n foods, ncudng shesh, tobacco, and n the ar
n some ocatons. There appears to be a reatonshp between
skn cancer and hgh eves of arsenc n drnkng water
Arsenc n eementa form s not consdered partcuary toxc
athough contnua ngeston of 0.3 mg/ ncreased the ncdence of
skn cancer
E0AMINATIONS
Ar-e(i&
Arsentes are more toxc than arsenates
Arsenc may be converted to dmethyarsne by
anaerobc organsms and accumuate n sh, smar to
methymercury
OSHA has set a standard of 10 g/3 for occupatona
exposure to norganc arsenc n ar over an 8-hr day. The
concentraton n drnkng water shoud not exceed 0.05
g/
E0AMINATIONS
/#ri,1
Barum may be found naturay n groundwater
and n surface water recevng ndustra wastes; t
s aso found n ar. It s a musce stmuant and n
arge quanttes may be harmfu to the nervous
system and heart
The fata dose s 550 to 600 mg. the eve shoud
not exceed 1 mg/ n drnkng water.
E0AMINATIONS
Se'e(i,1
Seenum s assocated wth ndustra pouton (copper smetng) and
vegetaton growth n so contanng seenum. It s found n meat and
other foods
Seenum causes cancers and sarcomas n rats fed heavy doses
Chronc exposure to excess seenum resuts to gastroenterts,
dermatts, and centra nervous system dsturbance
Seenum s consdered an essenta nutrent and may provde some
protecton aganst certan types of cancer
Seenum n drnkng water shoud not exceed 0.01 mg/.
E0AMINATIONS
C#)1i,1
The federa drnkng water maxmum contamnant eve for cadmum s 0.01 mg/
Common sources of cadmum are water mans and gavanzed ron ppes, tanks,
meta roofs where cstern water s coected, ndustra wastes (eectropatng),
tangs, pestcdes, ncke patng, soder, ncandescent ght aments,
photography wastes, and cadmum n pants, pastcs, nks; aso ncke-cadmum
batteres, and cadmum pated utenss. It aso found n znc and ead ores
Cadmum vaporzes when burned and sats of cadmum ready dssoves n water
and can therefore be found n ar poutants, wastewater, wastewater sudge, and
runoh, some food crops, tobacco, and drnkng water
Beef ver and shesh are very hgh n cadmum. Large concentratons may be
reated to kdney damage, hypertenson (hgh bood pressure), chronc bronchts,
and emphysema
E0AMINATIONS
C#)1i,1
Cadmum buds up n the human body. The drect
reatonshp between cardovascuar death rates n
the Unted States, Great Brtan, Sweden, Canada,
and |apan and the degree of softness or acdty of
water ponts to cadmum as the suspect
The |ont WHO Food and Agrcuture Organzaton
Expert Commttee on Food Addtves set n 1972 a
provsona toerabe weeky ntake of 400 to 500 g
E0AMINATIONS
C3r*1i,1
Chromum shoud not exceed 0.05 mg/ n drnkng
water
Chromum s found n cgarettes, n some foods, n
the ar, and n ndustra wastes
Chromum decency s assocated wth
atherosceross. Hexavaent chromum dust can
cause cancer of the ungs
E0AMINATIONS
A',1i(,1
Aumnum s not found naturay n the eementa
form athough t s one of the most abundant
metas on the earths surface
It s found n a sos, pants, and anma tssues
Aumnum-contanng wastes concentrate n and
can harm shesh and bottom fe
E0AMINATIONS
A',1i(,1
Aum as aumnum sufate s commony used as a
coaguant n water treatment
Precptaton may take pace n the dstrbuton
system or n standng when the water contans more
than 0.5 mg/
Its presence n ter pant emuent s used as a
measure of ter emcency
E0AMINATIONS
C%#(i)e
Cyande s found naturay and n ndustra wastes
Cyande concentratons as ow as 10 g/ have been reported to
cause adverse ehects on sh
Long term consumpton of up to neary 5 mg/day has shown no
n|urous ehects
The cyande concentraton n drnkng water shoud not exceed 0.05
mg/
Cyande s ready destroyed by conventona treatment processes
E0AMINATIONS
A. Water Cyce and Geoogy
B. Sampng and Ouaty of Laboratory Data
C. Sampng Frequency
D. Interpretaton of Water Anayses
E. Tests
. Vrus Examnaton
. Physca Examnaton
F. Types of Examnatons Done
. Mcroscopc
. Chemca
G. Water Conservaton
"UANTITY AND "UALITY OF
WATER
The quantty of water used for domestc purposes w
generay vary drecty wth:
the avaabty of water
habts of the peope
cost of water
number and type of pumbng xtures provded
water pressure
ar temperature
newness of communty
types of estabshments
Meterng
other factors
"UANTITY OF WATER

Whenever possbe,
the actua water consumpton under exstng or
smar crcumstances and the
number of persons served
shoud be the bass for the desgn of a water and
sewerage system.
"UANTITY OF WATER

Speca ad|ustment must be made for ndustra use.

The average per capta water use has ncreased from

150 gpd n 1960 to 168 gpd n 1975.

Incuded s water ost n the dstrbuton system and

water supped for re-ghtng, street washng,
muncpa parks, and swmmng poos.

The per capta use for rura domestc use s about 66

gpd.
"UANTITY OF WATER

Water conservaton can ehect consderabe savng

of water wth resutant reducton n water
treatment and pumpng costs, and wastewater
treatment.

Wth water conservaton, deveopment of new

sources of water and treatment factes can be
postponed or made unnecessary, and ow
dstrbuton system water pressure stuatons are
ess key.
WATER CONSER!ATION

Water conservaton can be accompshed, where

needed, by a contnung program of:
eak detecton n the communty dstrbuton system
and n budngs
use of ow water-use vaves and pumbng xtures
water pressure and ow contro n the dstrbuton
system, and n budng servces (orces)
unversa meterng and prce ad|ustment
conservaton practces by the consumer
and a rate structure that encourages conservaton
WATER CONSER!ATION

Leak detecton actvtes woud ncude:

Meterng water use and water producton baance
studes
routne eak detecton surveys of the dstrbuton
system
nvestgaton of water pondng or seepage reports
and compants
reportng and prompt foow-up on eakng faucets,
runnng ushometer vaves and water coset ba
oats, and other vaves
WATER CONSER!ATION

Unversa meterng make possbe water baance

studes to hep detect ost water and aso to
provde a bass for chargng for water use

Reducton n water use, however, may be

temporary n some nstances; the amuent w
probaby not be ahected
WATER CONSER!ATION
Low water-use pumbng xtures and accessores woud ncude:
ow-ush (3.5 ga) water cosets
water-savng shower head ow contros, spray taps and faucet
aerators
water savng cothes washers and dshwashers
In a dormtory study n a state unversty, the use of ow contro
devces (pressure eve) on shower heads ahected a 40 to 60
percent reducton n water use as resut of reducng the shower
head ow rates from 5.5 gpm to 2.0 to 2.5 gpm
Pumbng codes shoud requre water-savng xtures and
pressure contro n new structures and n rehabtaton pro|ects.
WATER CONSER!ATION

Dscusson of water reuse shoud ceary

dstngush between
Drect reuse
ndrect reuse
WATER REUSE

In drect reuse
o
the addtona wastewater treatment (such as storage,
coaguaton, occuaton, sedmentaton, sand or
anthracte traton or granuar actvated carbon
traton, and dsnfecton) s usuay determned by the
specc reuse
o
The wastewater s recamed for nonpotabe purposes
such as ndustra process or coong water, agrcutura
rrgaton, groundwater recharge, desert recamaton,
sh farmng, awn and park waterng, andscape and
gof course waterng, and toet ushng
o
The treated wastewater must not be used for drnkng,
cunary, bathng, or aundry purposes
WATER REUSE

In ndrect reuse:
o
Wastewater recevng varous degrees of treatment s
dscharged to a surface water or a groundwater aqufer
where t s duted and after varyng detenton perods
may become a source of water for potabe purposes,
after sutabe treatment.
WATER REUSE

Drect muncpa wastewater reuse, where

permtted, woud requre a dua water system:
One carryng potabe water and the other recamed
wastewater for toet ushng, awn waterng and
other nonpotabe purposes. the recamed water s
usuay bacteroogcay safe but questonabe
nsofar as other boogca, or organc and norganc
chemca content s concerned.
WATER REUSE
The sources of water suppy s dvded nto two ma|or casscatons:
Groundwater

Dug wes

Bored wes

Drven wes

Dred wes

rock and sand or earth sprngs

and ntraton gaeres

Surface water

Lake

Reservor

Stream

Pond

Rver

Creek
SOURCE AND PROTECTION OF
WATER SUPPLY

The ocaton of groundwater suppes shoud take

nto consderaton the:
Trbutary area
Probabe trave of pouton through the ground
We constructon practces and standards actuay
foowed
Type of santary sea provded the pont where the
pump nes pass out of the casng
SOURCE AND PROTECTION OF
WATER SUPPLY
Gr*,()w#$er

It s estmated that at any one tme, there s 20 to

30 tmes more water stored n the ground than n
a ts surface streams and akes. Deveopment of
groundwater sources can sgncanty hep meet
the ncreasng water needs.
SOURCE AND PROTECTION OF
WATER SUPPLY
Gr*,()w#$er
A reatvey new technque for water we ocaton s caed "fracture-
trace mappng." It s reported to be a hghy ehectve method for
ncreasng the raton of successfu to unsuccessfu we-water drng
operatons and to greaty mprove water yeds (up to 50 tmes).
Aera photographs gve the sked hydrogeoogst cues to the
presence of a zone of fractures underneath the earths surface. Cues
are:
Abrupt changes n the agnment of vaeys
The presence of taer or more ush vegetaton
The agnment of snk hoes or other depressons n the surface
The exstence of shaow ongtudna depresson n the surface overtop of
the fracture zone
SOURCE AND PROTECTION OF
WATER SUPPLY
Gr*,()w#$er

The so over the fracture zones s often wetter

and hence shows up darker n recenty powed
eds

The aera photograph survey s then foowed by

a ed nvestgaton and actua ground ocaton of
the fractures and potenta we drng stes.
SOURCE AND PROTECTION OF
WATER SUPPLY
Gr*,()w#$er

We'' C*($#1i(#$i*( > C#,-e #() Re1*v#'

We water suppes are a too often mpropery

constructed, protected, or ocated, wth the resut
that bacteroogca examnatons show the water to
be contamnated

Under such condtons a water used for drnkng or

cunary purposes shoud be rst be boed or
adequatey treated
SOURCE AND PROTECTION OF
WATER SUPPLY
Gr*,()w#$er

We'' C*($#1i(#$i*( > C#,-e #() Re1*v#'

Aternatve soutons because bong w not remove
chemca contamnants; treatng may remove some:
Abandonment of the we and connecton to a pubc water
suppy woud be the best souton f ths s practca
Investgaton to nd and remove the cause of pouton;
however, f the aqufer s bady pouted, ths may take
consderabe tme
A new, propery constructed ocated dred we n a cean
aqufer.
SOURCE AND PROTECTION OF
WATER SUPPLY
Gr*,()w#$er

We'' C*($#1i(#$i*( > C#,-e #() Re1*v#'

When a we shows the presence of bactera contamnaton t s
usuay due to one or more of four probabe causes:
Lack of mproper dsnfecton of a we foowng repar or constructon;
faure to sea the annuar space between the dr hoe and the outsde of
the casng
Faure to provde tght santary sea at the pace where the pump ne or
nes pass through the casng
Sewage pouton of the we through pouted strata or a ssured or
channeed formaton
On some occasons the casng s found to be ony a few feet n ength and
competey nadequate
SOURCE AND PROTECTION OF
WATER SUPPLY
H#r) W#$er
Hard water makes t dmcut to produce suds or to rnse
aundry, dshes or food equpment
Water hardness s caused by dssoved cacum and
magnesum bcarbonates, sufates and chordes n we
water
Ppes cog, and after a tme, equpment and water
heaters become coated wth a hard mnera depost,
sometmes referred to as me scae
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
H#r) W#$er
A commerca zeote or synthetc resn water softener s used
to soften water. The meda must be regenerated perodcay
and dsnfected wth chorne to remove contamnaton, after
each regeneraton. Softeners do not remove contamnaton n
the water suppy
A ter shoud be paced ahead of a softener f the water s
turbd.
A sodum content of the water passng through a home water
softener w be ncreased
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
H#r) W#$er

Indvduas who are on a sodum-restrcted det

shoud advse ther physcan that they are usng
home-softened water snce such water s a
contnua source of detary sodum

A cod-water by-pass ne can be nstaed around

the softener to suppy drnkng water and water
for toet ushng.
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
T,r<i)i$% *r M,))i(e--

Ths usuay occurs n water for a pond, creek, or

other surface source

Ths water s pouted and requres coaguaton,

traton, and chornaton treatment

Wes sometmes become coudy from cave-n or

seepage from cay, st strata but usuay cear up
wth proonged pumpng
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
T,r<i)i$% *r M,))i(e--

Sand ters can stran out mud, drt, eaves, and

foregn matter, but not a bactera or vruses

Nor are charcoa, zeote, or carbon ters sutabe

for ths purpose, and n addton they cog
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
Ir*( i( we'' w#$er
Ths may cause turbdty, red water, a btter taste n tea
or cohee, and, when exposed to ar, stans on pumbng
xtures, equpment, and aundry
A commerca zeote water softener removes 1.5 to 2.0
mg/ and an ron remova ter removes up to 10 mg/
ron from we water devod of oxygen
The water softener s regenerated wth sat; the ron
remova ter wth potassum permanganate
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
Ir*( i( we'' w#$er

Controed addton of a poyphosphate can keep

1.0 to 2.0 mg/ ron n souton, but sodum s aso
added to the water

Wth hgher concentraton of ron, the water s

chornated to oxdze the ron, but the water
shoud then be tered to remove the ron
precptated before t goes to the softener
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
Ir*( i( we'' w#$er
Approaches:
Rase the pH of the water to above 1.0 f the water s acd; soda ash s
usuay used for ths purpose added together wth the chorne souton
Another approach s to dscharge the water to the ar chamber of a
pressure tank or to a sprnker over a cascade above a tank. It s
necessary to ush out the ron whch settes n the tank and to ter out
the remander. Ar contro s needed
In|ectng chorne souton nto the water at ts source, where possbe,
contros the growth of ron bactera, f ths s a probem
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
C*rr*-ive W#$er

Ths dssoves meta, shortens fe of water tanks,

dscoors water, and cogs ppes

Water can be made noncorrosve by passng t through

a ter contanng broken mestone or marbe chps

The controed addton of a poyphosphate, scate, or

soda ash (commerca unts are avaabe) usuay
prevents meta from gong nto souton
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
C*rr*-ive W#$er

The water remans cear and stanng s prevented

Use of a sodum poyphosphate woud add sodum

to water whch woud be undesrabe for
ndvduas on a ow-sodum det
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
T#-$e #() O)*r-

Actvated carbon ters are normay used to remove

undesrabe tastes and odors from domestc water
suppes

They do not remove contamnaton

Hydrogen sude n water can be emnated by

aeraton and chornaton, foowed by an actvated
carbon ter
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
T#-$e #() O)*r-

The actvated carbon w have to be repaced when

ts capacty has been exhausted

Ftraton aone, through a pressure ter contanng

a speca synthetc resn, aso removes up to 5 mg/
hydrogen sude n most cases

Use the water n queston to check ehectveness of a

process before you purchase any equpment
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
De$er+e($-
Detergents n water can be detected vsuay or by aboratory
examnaton
When ther concentraton exceeds 1 mg/, foam appears n a gass of
water drawn from a faucet
Detergents themseves have not been shown to be harmfu, but ther
presence s evdence that wastewater from ones own sewage dsposa
system or from a neghbors system s enterng the water suppy source
In such crcumstances, the sewage dsposa system may be moved, a
we constructed n a new area or the we extended and seaed nto a
deeper water-bearng formaton not sub|ect to pouton
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
De$er+e($-

There s no guarantee that the new water-bearng

formaton w not be or become pouted ater

The souton of ths probem s connecton to a pubc

water suppy and / or to a pubc sewer

A granuar actvated carbon (GAC) ter may be used

to remove detergent, but ts ehectveness and cost
shoud rst be demonstrated
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
G#-*'i(e *r F,e' Oi' i( W#$er

Gasone or fue o n water may accdenty get nto a

we through:
Leakng storage tanks
Overow from tank ar vents
Accdenta spage near the we may be the cause

Correcton requres emnaton of the cause, foowed

by owerng of the pump drop ppe f possbe, but the
pouton s key to persst n the source for a ong tme
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
G#-*'i(e *r F,e' Oi' i( W#$er
The gasone or fue o w graduay coect on the water
surface n the we and w have to be separatey
pumped out unt a accumuaton s removed
An actvated carbon ter w remove sma amounts of
o or gasone
It may become expensve f arge quanttes of o or
gasone must be removed and the actvated carbon
repaced frequenty
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
P*'',$e) W#$er
Sometmes chornaton or utravoet "sterzaton" unts are
suggested to make pouted water safe for drnkng wthout
regard to the type, amount, or cause of pouton
Ths may be hazardous. Instead, every ehort shoud be made
to obtan water from a pubc system meetng the standards
gven
Chornaton or utravoet process s acceptabe ony for the
treatment of cean, cear water not sub|ect to chemca
pouton
D*1e-$i& We''5W#$er
S,22'ie- > S2e&i#' Pr*<'e1-
P*'',$e) W#$er

Utravoet ray amps are not consdered

satsfactory for the purcaton of water suppes
whch may be sub|ect to pouton

Exampes are surface water suppes such as

ponds, akes, and streams whch usuay vary
wdey n physca, chemca and boogca quaty,
and wes or sprngs n whch the water may
contan turbdty, coor, ron, or organc matter
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Pretreatment, usuay ncudng coaguaton, occuaton, traton,
and chornaton, woud be requred ahead of the utravoet unt to
remove substances whch nterfere wth the ehectveness of the
utravoet rays.
In addton, certan contros are needed to ensure that the ow,
condton of the amp, sme accumuaton, turbdty of the water,
temperature condtons, etc.
Smar pretreatment woud be requred pror to the dsnfecton of
water whch s not of good physca character when usng ony
chornaton treatment
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Desanaton or desatng s the converson of seawater or

bracksh water to fresh water. Ths converson of treated
wastewater to potabe water usng moded desanaton
process s aso beng consdered, but heath ehects and
cost questons must rst be resoved.
About seven-tenths of our gobe s covered wth seawater.
The word oceans have a surface area of 139,500,000 m
2
and a voume of 317,000,000 m3
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The oceans contan about 97% of the word water, bracksh nand stes
and poar ce make up 2.5%, eavng ess than 0.5 percent fresh water to
be used and reused for muncpa, ndustra, agrcutura, recreatona,
and energy-producng purposes
In addton, more than haf of the earths surface s desert or sem-desert
Under crcumstances where adequate and satsfactory groundwater,
surface water, or ranwater s not avaabe and a hgher quaty water s
requred, but where seawater or bracksh water s avaabe, desanaton
may provde an answer to the water probem
Cost of constructon and energy however coud be ma|or decdng factors
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Desatng pants are n use a over the word. The Omce of Water
Research and Technoogy reports 1036 pants wth capacty of 525
mgd n operaton or under constructon as of |anuary 1, 1975.
Seawater has a tota dssoved sods (TDS) concentraton of about
36,000 mg/
About 78% s sodum chorde, 11% magnesum chorde, 6%
magnesum sufate, 4% cacum sufate, wth the remander
potassum sufate, cacum carbonate, and magnesum bromde, n
addton to suspended sods and mcroboogca organsms
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Water wth 1000 to 4000 and up to 15,000 mg/ TDS s usuay
consdered mdy to moderatey bracksh; 15,000 to 36,000
mg/ TDS s consdered heavy bracksh
The source of bracksh water may be groundwater or surface
water sources such as oceans, estuares, sane rvers, and
akes. Its composton can be extremey varabe, contanng
dherent concentratons of sodum magnesum, sufate,
cacum, chorde, bcarbonate, aso uorde, potassum and
ntrate. Iron, manganese, carbon doxde, and hydrogen sude
mght aso contrbute to the varabty of bracksh water quaty
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Water contanng more dssoved sat than seawater, such

as the Great Sat Lake or the Dead Sea, s consdered brne.
Desatng w remove dssoved sats and mneras such as
chordes, sufates, and sodum n addton to hardness.
Ntrates, ntrtes, phosphates, uordes, ammona, and
heavy metas are aso removed to some degree
Very hard bracksh water w requre pror softenng to
make reverse osmoss or eectrodayss very ehectve
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Some known methods of desatng water are:

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Dstaton partcuary mutstage, has been the
process of choce for desatng seawater, wth the
vertca tube process ganng more acceptance
Eectrodayss and reverse osmoss appear to be
more favorabe for bracksh water; aso on
exchange for specc purposes
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In dstaton, sea water s heated to the bong pont and then
nto steam, usuay under pressure, at a startng temperature of
250F
The steam s coected and condensed n a chamber by comng
nto contact wth tubes (condenser-heat exchanger) contanng
coo sea water
The heated sane water s passed through a seres of dstaton
chambers n whch the pressure s ncrementay reduced and the
water bos (made to "ash"), agan at reduced temperature, wth
the producton of steam whch s coected as fresh water
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The remanng, more concentrated, sea water (brne) ows
to waste
In each step, the temperature of the ncomng sea water s
ncreased by the condenser-heat exchangers as t ows to
the na heater
The wastewater (brne) and dsted water are aso used to
preheat the ncomng sea water. Ths process s referred to
as mutstage ash dstaton (MSF). There may be as many
as 15 to 25 stages
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A ma|or probem s the formaton of scae (cacum carbonate, cacum sufate,
and magnesum hydroxde) on the heat-transfer surfaces of the ppe or vesse
n whch the sea water s permtted to bo
Ths occurs at a temperature of about 160F; but scae can be greaty
mnmzed by preheatng the sea water to remove ether the cacum or
carbon doxde.
Vertca tube dstaton, mutehect mutstage dstaton, vapor compresson
dstaton and soar dstaton are dstaton varatons. Soar humdcaton
(dstaton) depends upon water evaporaton at a rate determned by the
temperature of the water and the prevang humdty. The unt s covered wth
a peaked gass or pastc roof from whch the condensate s coected. Dsted
water s tasteess and ow n pH f not aerated and ad|usted before dstrbuton
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Schematc of a mut-stage ash desanator
A - Steam n
B - Seawater n
C - Potabe water out
D - Waste out
E - Steam out
F - Heat exchange
G - Condensaton coecton
H - Brne heater
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Schematc of a mutpe ehect desanaton
pant. The rst stage s at the top.
Pnk areas are vapor
ghter bue areas are qud feed water
Stronger turquose s condensate
F - feed water n
S - heatng steam n
C - heatng steam out
W - Fresh water (condensate) out
R - brne out
O - cooant n
P - cooant out
VC s the ast-stage cooer.
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The quaty of surface water depends on:
the watershed area
and use
ocaton and sources of pouton
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The quaty of surface water depends on:
natura agences of purcaton such as:
Sedmentaton
Sunght
Aeraton
Ntrcaton
Ftraton
Duton
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These are varabe and hence cannot be depended on
to contnuousy purfy water ehectvey
In addton ncreasng urbanzaton, ndustrazaton,
and ntensve farmng have caused heavy organc and
norganc chemca dscharges to streams, whch are not
ready removed by the usua water treatment
Treatment consstng of coaguaton, occuaton,
sedmentaton, rapd sand traton, and chornaton
has tte ehect on the contamnants.
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Because of these factors, heavy pouted surface
waters shoud be avoded as drnkng suppes, of
possbe, and upand protected water resources
shoud be used and preserved consstent wth
mutpurpose uses n the best pubc nterest
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Casscaton of Water based on the Most Probabe
Number (MPN) of coform bactera per 100 m of
sampe:
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Pan Sedmentaton:
The quescent settng or storage of water, such as woud take pace n a reservor, ake,
or basn, wthout the ad of chemcas, preferaby for a month or onger
Ths natura treatment resuts n:
Settng out of suspended sods
Reducton of hardness, ammona, ead, cadmum, and other heavy metas, some synthetc
organc chemcas, feca coform
Remova of coor (due to the acton of sunght)
Death of bactera prncpay because of the unfavorabe temperature, ack of sutabe food,
and sterzng ehect of sunght
Certan mcroscopc organsms, such as protozoa, consume bactera, thereby adng n the
purcaton of the water
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Pan Sedmentaton:
Ths treatment may, under certan condtons, be consdered equvaent to traton
Dsadvantages that must be taken nto consderaton and controed:
The growth of mcroscopc organsms that cause unpeasant taste and odors s
encouraged
Pouton by surface wash, fertzers, pestcdes, recreatona uses, brds, sewage and
ndustra wastes may occur uness steps are taken to prevent or reduce these
possbtes
Athough subsdence permts bactera to de oh, t aso permts bactera to accumuate
and grow n reservor bottom mud under favorabe condtons
In addton, ron and manganese may go nto souton, carbon doxde may ncrease, and
hydrogen sude may be produced.
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Pan Sedmentaton:
Presettng reservors are sometmes used to emnate heavy turbdty
or pouton and thus prepare the water for treatment by coaguaton,
settng, and traton
Ordnary, at east two basns are provded to permt one to be ceaned
whe the other s n use
A capacty sumcent to gve a retenton perod of at east 2 or 3 days s
desrabe
When heavy pouted water s to be condtoned, provson can be made
for premnary coaguaton at the pont of entrance of the water nto the
reservors foowed by chornaton at the ext
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Mcrostranng:
Process desgned to reduce the suspended sods, ncudng
pankton, n water
The terng meda consst of very ney woven fabrcs of
staness stee on a revovng drum
Appcatons to water suppes are prmary the carcaton of
reatvey cean surface waters n ow n true coor and
cooda turbdty, n whch mcrostranng and dsnfecton
consttute the pretreatment; and the carcaton of waters
ahead of sow or rapd sand ters and datomte ters
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Mcrostranng:
Removas of the commoner types of agae have
been as hgh as 95 percent
Wash-water consumpton may run from 1 to 3
percent of the ow through the unt
Bndng of the fabrc rarey occurs but may do so,
from nadequate wash-water pressure or the
presence of bactera smes
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Mcrostranng:
Ceansng s ready accompshed wth commerca sodum
hypochorte
Sma head osses and ow mantenance costs may make to
mcrostraner attractve for sma nstaatons.
Unt szes start at about 2.5 ft n dameter by 2 ft wde. These
have a capacty varyng between 50,000 and 250,000 gpd
dependng on the type and amount of sods n the water and
the fabrc used. Larger unts have capactes n excess of 10
mgd.
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Coaguaton, Foccuaton and Settng
The addton to water of a coaguant such as aum (aumnum sufate) permts partces to come together and resuts n the formaton of a occuent mass, or oc, whch
enmeshes mcroorgansms, suspended partces, and cooda matter, removng and attractng these materas n settng out. The common coaguants used are aum, "back
aum", actvated aum, ammonum aum, sodum aumnate, copperas (ferrous sufate), chornated copperas, ferrc sufate, ferrc chorde, puverzed mestone, and cays.
To ad|ust the chemca reacton for mproved coaguaton, t s sometmes necessary to rst add soda ash, hydrated me, quckme, or sufurc acd. The mxng of the
coaguant s usuay done n two steps. The rst step s rapd or ash mx and the second, sow mx, durng whch occuaton takes pace. Rapd mx s a voent agtaton for
not more than 30 sec and may be accompshed by a mechanca agtator, pump mpeer and ppe ttngs, bames, hydrauc |ump, or other means. Sow mx s accompshed
by means of bames or a mechanca mxer to promote formaton of a oc and provde a detenton of at east 30 mn. The occuated water then ows to the settng or
sedmentaton basn desgned to provde a retenton of 4 to 6 hr, an overow rate of about 500 gpd per square foot of area, or 20,000 gpd per foot of wer ength. Around 80
percent of the turbdty, coor, and bactera are removed by ths treatment. It s aways recommended that mxng tanks and settng basns be at east two n number to
permt ceanng and repars wthout nterruptng competey the water treatment, even though mechanca ceanng equpment s nstaed.
For the contro of coaguaton, |ar tests are made n the aboratory to determne the approxmate dosage (normay between 10 and 50 mg/) of chemcas that appear to
produce the best resuts. Then, wth ths as a gude, the chemca-dosng equpment, dry feed or souton feed, s ad|usted to add the desred quantty of chemca proportona
to the ow of water treated to gve the best resuts. Standby chemca feed unts and aarm devces are necessary to assure contnuous treatment.
Zeta-potenta s aso used to contro coaguaton. It nvoves determnaton of the speed at whch partces move through an eectrc ed caused by a drect current passng
through the water. Best occuaton takes pace when the charge approaches zero, gvng best precptaton when a coaguant such as aumnum sufate, asssted by a
poyeectroyte f necessary, s added.
The use of aum, a poymer, and actvated cay may assst coaguaton and carcaton of certan waters. A faster-settng and more terabe oc s reported whch s ess
ahected by temperature change or excessve ows. Less puggng of ters, nger ter runs, more consstent emuent turbdty, ess backwash water, ess sudge voume, and
easer dewaterng of sudge s camed for poymer, cay-aum treatment.
Another devce for the coaguaton and settng of water conssts of a unt n whch the water to be treated s ntroduced at the bottom and ows upward through a banket of
setted oc. The cared water ows oh at the top. These basns are referred to as upow suspended-sods contact carers. The detenton perod used n treatng surface
water s 4 hours, but may be as tte as 1.5 to 2 hours dependng on the quaty of the raw water. The norma upow rate s 14,400 gpd per foot of wer ength. A ma|or
advantage camed, where appcabe, s reducton of the detenton perod hence savngs n space. Dsadvantages ncude possbe oss of sudge banket wth changng
temperature and varabe water quaty.
Tube setters are aso comng nto use. They are shaow tubes, usuay ncned at an ange of approxmatey 60 degrees to the vertca. The tube cross secton may be square,
trapezoda, tranguar, or crcuar. Ehectve operaton requres amnar ow, adequate retenton, nonscourng veoctes, and oc partce settng wth aowance for sudge
accumuaton and desudgng at maxmum ow rates. Pot pant studes are advsabe pror to actua desgn and constructon.
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TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
ANGAT RESERVOIR
IPO DAM
BICTI
UMIRAY TUNNEL
UMIRAY RIVER
IPO DAM
ANGAT DAM
UMIRAY TUNNEL
1
2
3
AQUEDUCT
TUNNELS
ARPS
SOURCE
SOURCE
Raw Water
Raw Water
Treated Water
Treated Water
2
3
1
5
6
4
1000 mld
1400 mld