Technical Report Writing (HM102)

Basic Expository Techniques in Technical

Writing





Discuss
Background
Definition
Description
Analysis


Background
Exposition is explanation and/or instruction.
It is the term for the kind of writing we use to
explain facts or ideas.
Exposition brings about an understanding of
something.

Background (Cont.)
Expository techniques may be grouped into
three major categories or methods:
Definition
Description
Analysis
Definition
Definition
Formal definition
Informal definition
Definition by illustration
Expanded definition


Definition
A definition is an explanation of an object or
idea that distinguishes it from all other objects
or ideas. It is basic to knowledge.
Definition indicates or explains what is
included within a term and what is excluded.


Types of Definition

a). The Formal Definition
A formal definition consists of three parts:
1. The term-the word, object, idea or concept to
be defined (It needs defining).
2. The genus- the class, the group or category in
which the term belongs (the class to which the item
belongs).

a). The Formal Definition (Cont.)
3. Differentia- the characteristics that distinguish
the term from other members of the genus. The
differentia excludes all other members of the
genus except the term being defined (differentiation
of the item from all members of its class).


a). The Formal Definition (Cont.)
Example: A rectangle is a four-sided figure
having all its angles right angle and, thus, its
opposite sides equal and parallel.
(Classify the term, genus and differentia)

Rectangle is the term; four-sided
figure is the genus; having all its
angles right angle, thus its opposite
sides equal and parallel is the
differentia. (bottom-up process)

Add. Info.
How to classify the term: to define a term, first
place the term in a class. The class is a large
group to which the term belongs. The group can
be either broad or narrow, e.g. a pen can be
caused as a thing or as a writing instrument.
The narrower the class, the more meaning it
conveys, and the less that needs to be said in
the differentiation.

How to differentiate the Term
To differentiate the term, explain those
characteristics that belong only to it.
If the differentiation applies to more than one
member of the class, the definition lacks
precisions, e.g. if a writer says, evaporation is
the process of water disappearing from a certain
area
the definition is too broad; water can
disappear for many reasons, not just from
evaporation.
The differentiation must explain the
characteristics of evaporation that make it unlike
any other process-the change from a liquid to a
vapor.
A camera is a device (the class) for taking
photographs (the difference).
Here are five common methods for differentiating
a term.


Add.
Write two objectives of Technical Report
Writing on a separate sheet.
1.
2.
1. Name its essential properties-the characteristics features
possessed by all individual of this type.
2. Explain what it does
3. If the term is an object, describe what it looks like
4. What it is made of
5. If the term is a process, explain how to make or do it
a). Classify/differentiate the following example keeping in
view the above mentioned points. Skip the point (s) if
irrelevant to the given example: (Time: 5 Minutes)
Example: A camera is a light-tight box that holds a piece
of film so an image can fall on it.
b). Categorize the above given example in light of term,
genus and differentia.



add. inf.
A camera is a light-tight box that holds a
piece of film so an image can fall on it.
What it looks like? A camera is a light-tight box.
Explain what it does. holds a piece of film so an
image can fall on it.
A camera (term)is a light-tight box (genus)that holds
a piece of film so an image can fall on it (differentia).









Name the essential properties-the characteristics
features possessed by all individual of this type.
Define the term Engineering or Electricity keeping
in view the above heading (only one or two
sentences)
(Time: 3 Minutes- class activity).
You can begin the definition, such as,
Engineering is the, deals with, means,
includes???
Electricity is adeals with



Name the essential properties
Engineering is the application of scientific
principles to practical ends, such as the
design, construction, and operation of efficient
and economical structures, equipment, and
system.
Electricity is a physical phenomenon arising
from the existence and interactions of charged
particles.
Explain what it does
The microprocessor-based 7920 Multicontroller
[is a machine that] automatically controls
multiple-step operations in industrial production
and processes.
Autolayer is an AutoCAD layer management
utility. It allows users to save layer groups and
their properties from a current drawing.
Describe what it is made of
Concrete is made of sand, gravel, water,
gypsum, and, its key ingredient, portland
cement.
A double end stepping motor [is a machine
that] has an output shaft that extends from
both ends of the motor.
Describe what it looks like
A sine curve is a figure that has semicircles of
identical size altering above and below a
horizontal axis.
Explain how to make or do it
Simple staining is [a process of] coloring
bacteria by applying a stain, methylene blue,
to a fixed smear (mark).

Avoid circular definitions
Do not use circular definitions, which repeat the
word being defined. You will not help the reader
understand capacitance if you use the word
capacitor in the differentiation.
b). The Informal definition
For specialized or technical terms that your
readers will not know, provide informal
definitions
The informal definition uses the shortest and
simplest method for identifying or explaining the
matter.
It may involve substituting a short, more familiar
word or phrase or synonyms.
Operational definitions and synonyms are quite
acceptable if they furnish the necessary
information.
An operational definition gives meaning of an
abstract word for one particular time and place.
It creates a test for discriminating in one
particular circumstance, e.g. to determine
whether or not a marketing program is a
success, managers need to define success.
If their operational definition of success is to
increase sales by 10 percent and if the
increase occurs, the program is successful.
In this sense, the operational def. is agreed-
upon criterion. If everyone agrees, the def.
facilitates the discussion and evaluation of a
topic.
Specifically, the operational definition
describes the activities, procedures, or
operations within which the term operates.

Using the techniques of operational def. and
synonyms are more appropriate for informal
situations than for more formal requirements.
Synonyms:
microbe- germ
Double- twice
Paleography- ancient writing



Synonym word means the same as another
word. It is effective as definition only when it is
better known than the term being defined.
People are more familiar with loudspeaker
than with electroacoustics transducer.
If audience have less knowledge about the
topic, use common words to clarify technical
terms.
When using synonyms, put the common word
or the technical term in parentheses.
For example, most of the rock consists of
calcium carbonate (limestone).
The maps are drawn in a projection that
enlarges the areas near the edges (called
limbs) of the moon.

Definition by Illustrations
Offering an illustration is a primary means for
defining an unfamiliar thing or concept.


Trapezium or Quadrilateral
(Define it, write one or two sentences)
The dictionary defines the trapezium as a
plain figure with four sides, no two of which
are parallel(AmE).
A flat shape with four straight sides, one pair
of opposite sides being parallel and the other
pair not parallel (BrE).
The Expanded Definition
Sometimes the informal or simple definitions
fail to explain a complex object or concept. In
such a case the definition must be developed
by the use of details, examples, comparisons,
and other explanatory devices such as:
derivation, analogy, explication, comparison
and contrast, history and analysis.

Explain derivation:
Explain derivation means to define its origin.
For example, ammeter is derived from the
combination of ampere and meter, it is a meter
that measures amperes.
COBOL is an acronym for common business-
oriented language.
Inductance, which stems from induce, refers to
the ability of an electric current in one circuit to
cause voltage in another circuit.
Explicate term
In this context, explicate means to define
difficult words contained in the formal
sentences definition. When explicating,
provide an informal definition rather than
another formal one. Notice that speed defines
velocity in the following example:
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
(or speed) with respect of time.
Use an analogy
An analogy points out a similarity between
otherwise dissimilar things. If something is
unknown is to readers, it helps if you compare
it to something they do know.
Here is an analogy that compares electricity to golf
balls.
An electric current travels with lightning speed-
20,000 miles per second along a copper wire-but
individual electrons do not: they amble along at less
than an inch per second. The current streaks through
the wire because the electrons push each other all
the way. The phenomenon can best be understood
by imagining a pipe completely filled with golf balls. If
an additional ball is pushed in at one end of the pipe,
a ball will pop out almost instantly at the other end.




Compare and contrast
A comparison-contrast definition shows both
the similarities of and the difference between
similar objects or processes. An example is
comparing water flowing through a pipe to
electricity flowing through a wire. Like other
methods of extending a definition, the
comparison-contrast method takes advantage
of something the readers know in order to
explain something they do not know.
Comparing and contrasting a
semiconductor with a conductor of
electricity works only if the reader knows
what a conductor is.

Class Activity No 3 (Time: 15 Minutes; use separate sheet)
1. Write one sentence definitions of any two of the
following technical terms for a non-expert reader
and then for an expert reader.
2. Write one or two sentences formal and informal
definitions of any two objects or concept.
Technical Terms are: Network , Equation,
Microwave oven, Elements of a camera lens,
Robotics, Bicycle gear train , An organizational
chart, Compression, Word processing function, The
web is a bunch of hooked together, Software is what
you use to run hardware, A manager runs the show.

Description (Mechanism or Organism)
Description is widely used in Technical Writing.
Many reporters require that you describe
something-machine, process, or system.
The goal of a mechanism description is to make
the readers confident that they have all the
information they need about the mechanism.
No need to describe every part in minute detail, so
select various key part and their functions.

Planning the mechanism description

Consider the audience
To make the audience feel confident, consider
their knowledge level and why they need info.
Basically, give physical detail they need to act.
The details you choose and amount of info.
you provide reflect your understanding of their
knowledge and need.

Sample, A
The truck box size is an important factor
because we frequently transport 4 ft by 8 ft
sheets of wood. The box size of the Hauler
(carrier) at the floor is 3.5 ft by 6 ft. The box
size of the x-200 at the floor is 4 ft by 8 ft. This
factor means we should purchase the x-200.

Sample, B
The ABC scanner has 50-200 dpi resolution,
24-bit color scanning, and an optional
transparency adapter. The XYZ scanner has
400-1600 dpi resolution, 24-bit color, and an
optional transparency adaptor. The higher
resolution capabilities make XYZ the preferable
purchase to fill our needs.
Select an Organizational Principle
Left to right or right to left
Top to bottom or bottom to top
Most important to least important or least
important to most important
Depends on audience need.
For general introductiontop to bottom is best
For future action, say, to decide whether or
not to accept a recommendation, use most to
least important.

How to know the effectiveness of your principle of
organization
Look for backtracking
Your description should move gradually forward,
starting with basic definitions or concepts that
audience needs to understand later statements.
If it is full of sections in which you have to stop and
backtrack to define terms or concepts, your
sequence is probably inappropriate.

Choose Visual Aids

It enhance your description
It shows all the parts in relationship
Readers focus on specific aspects
Often a visual aid of a detail can dramatically
shorten a text discussion.


Follow the usual form for description
Generally, description do not stand alone but are part
of a larger document. However, they still have an
introduction, and body sections; conclusions are
optional.
Use conclusions only if you need to point out
significance.
Make the introduction brief, stating either your goal
for the reader or the purpose of the mechanism.
To describe a part, point out whatever is
necessary about relevant physical details-size,
shape, material, weight, relationship to other
parts, or method of connection to other parts.
If necessary, use analogies and statements of
significance to help your reader understand the
part.
Writing the mechanism description
A stand-alone mechanism description has a
brief introduction, a description of each part,
and an optional conclusion.














Introduction

The introduction gives the reader a framework
for understanding the mechanism.
In the introduction, define the mechanism,
state its purpose, present an overall
description, and preview the main parts.
Figure: 2, Paper Micrometer
(It measures thickness of a piece of paper)
(Write introduction)
Hints
What is this?
Define and write purpose
Use analogy
How many parts?
Name the parts

A paper micrometer is a small measuring
instrument used to measure the thickness of
a piece of paper. The micrometer, roughly
twice as large as a regular stapler (see
Figure, 2), has four main parts: the frame,
the dial, the hand lever and the piston.
Ato paper (Definition & purpose)
The micrometerto main parts (Overall
description)
The frametothe piston (Main parts)

Body: Description of mechanism
The body contains details, identify each main
part with heading and then describe it.
Begin the paragraph with a definition, then add
details.
Use structural parallelism ( i.e. first a def., then a
list of terms, then the def. of the terms).
If you put size in one section, do so in all of them.


Body
Describe the Frame

Hints for the Frame
Definition
Color
Analogy
Size and analogy
Weight


Sample
The frame of paper micrometer is a cast piece of
steel that provides a surface to which all the other
parts are attached. The frame, painted gray, looks
like the letter C with a large flat disk on the bottom
and a round calibrated dial (to mark or correct the units of
measurement on the scale of thermometer) on top. The disk is
4 inches in diameter resembles a flat hockey
puck. The frame is 5 inches high and 7 inches
long. The frame is approximately 1 inches wide.
The micrometer weighs 8 pounds.
The frame of paper micrometer is a cast piece of steel
that provides a surface to which all the other parts are
attached. (Definitions)
The frame, painted gray, looks like the letter C with a
large flat disk on the bottom and a round calibrated
dial on top. (Color and analogy)
The disk is 4 inches in diameter resembles a flat
hockey puck. The frame is 5 inches high and 7
inches long. The frame is approximately 1 inches
wide. (size and analogy)
The micrometer weighs 8 pounds. (weight)



Describe the dial
Hints for Dial
Defineshow thickness of paper
Analogy
Size
Appearance
Sample
The dial shows the thickness of the paper. The
dial looks like a watch dial that it has only one
moving hand. The frame around the dial is made
of chrome-plated metal. A piece of glass protects
the face of the dial in the same way that the
glass crystal on a watch protects the face and
hands. The dial, 6 inches in a diameter and 1/8
inch thick, is calibrated in .001 inch marks and
the face of the dial is numbered every .010 inch.
The hand is made from a thin, stiff metal rod,
pointed on the end.
The dial showsof chrome-plated metal.
Definition and analogy
A piece of glasswatch protects the face and
hands. Analogy
The dial, 6 inchesevery .010 inch. Size
The hand is madepointed on the end.
Appearance
Describe the hand lever
Hints
Definition
Analogy
Relationship to other parts
Effect
Sample
The hand lever, shaped like a handle on a pair
of pliers, raises and lowers the piston. It is
made of chrome-plated steel and attaches to
the frame near the base of the dial. The hand
lever is 4 inches long, inch wide, and inch
thick. When the hand lever is depressed, the
piston moves up, and the hand on the dial
rotates. When the hand lever is released and
a piece of paper is positioned under the
piston, the dial shows thickness of the paper.
The hand lever, shaped like a handle on a pair of pliers,
raises and lowers the piston. It is made of chrome-plated
steel and attaches to the frame near the base of the dial.

The hand lever is 4 inches long, inch wide, and inch
thick. When the hand lever is depressed, the piston moves
up, and the hand on the dial rotates.

When the hand lever is released and a piece of paper is
positioned under the piston, the dial shows thickness of the
paper.

The hand lever, shaped like a handle on a pair of pliers, raises
and lowers the piston. It is made of chrome-plated steel and
attaches to the frame near the base of the dial Analogy and
definition
The hand lever is 4 inches long, inch wide, and inch thick.
When the hand lever is depressed, the piston moves up, and the
hand on the dial rotates. Relationship to other parts
When the hand lever is released and a piece of paper is
positioned under the piston, the dial shows thickness of the
paper. Effect

Describe the piston

Hints
Definition
Function
Size
Relationship to other parts
The Piston
The piston moves up and down when the
operator depresses and releases the hand
lever. This function causes the papers
thickness to register on the dial. The piston is
3/8 inch in diameter, flat on the bottom, and
made of metal without a finish. The piston
slides in a hole in the frame. The piston can
measure the thickness of paper up to .300
inch.
The piston moves up and down when the operator
depresses and releases the hand lever.
This function causes the papers thickness to
register on the dial.
The piston is 3/8 inch in diameter, flat on the
bottom, and made of metal without a finish.
The piston slides in a hole in the frame. The
piston can measure the thickness of paper up to
.300 inch.
The piston
The piston moves up and down when the operator
depresses and releases the hand lever.
(Definition).
This function causes the papers thickness to
register on the dial. (Function).
The piston is 3/8 inch in diameter, flat on the
bottom, and made of metal without a finish. (size).
The piston slides in a hole in the frame. The piston
can measure the thickness of paper up to .300
inch. (Relationship to other parts).

Other patterns for mechanism description
Two other patterns are also useful for
describing mechanism
The function method and generalized method
The function method
One common way to describe a machine is to
name its main parts and then give only a brief
discussion of the function of each part.
This method is used extensively in manuals.
Sample (Function buttons )
The four function buttons, located under the
liquid crystal display, work in conjunction with
the function switches. The four switches are
hertz (Hz), decibels (dB), continuity (c), and
relative (REL). (List of subparts)
The hertz function allows you to measure
the frequency of the input signal. Press the
button a second time to disable.
The decibel function allows you to measure
the intensity of the input signal, which is
valuable for measuring audio signals. It
functions the same way as the hertz button.

The hertz function allows you to measure
the frequency of the input signal. Press the
button a second time to disable. (Function
and size of subpart 1).The decibel
function allows you to measure the
intensity of the input signal, which is
valuable for measuring audio signals. It
functions the same way as the hertz button.
(Function and size of subpart 2).
The generalized method
This method does not focus on a part by part
description; instead the writer coveys many
facts about the machine.
This method of describing is commonly found
in technical journals and reports.
With generalized method, writers use the
following outline:
General detail
Physical description
Details of functions
Other details
General details consist of a definition and a
basic statement of the operational principle.
Physical description explains such items as
shape, size, appearance, and characteristics
(weight, hardness, chemical properties,
methods of assembly or construction)

Details of function explain these features of
the mechanism:
How it works, or its operational principle
Its application
How well and how efficiently it works
Special constraints, such as conditions in the
environment
How is it controlled
How long it performs before it needs service
Other details include information about
background, information about marketing, and
general information such as who makes it.
Writing Activity 5 Minutes
(Do not use separate sheet)
Point out the differences in the following
Methods:
Usual Method for Mechanism Description
Function Method for Mechanism Description
Generalized Method for Mechanism Description


Summary of description
1. Begin with the definition of the matter to be
described (define the mechanism).
2. State its purpose, what it does or what it is
used for.
3. Describe what it looks like, for complex or
unfamiliar matters use an analogy.

4. Use illustrations to help the reader visualize the
appearance, size, dimensions, and shape both
of the item as a whole and of its components.
5. Explain why (the theory) the device or organism
operates or behaves like the way it does.



6. Use steps 1-5 above to describe each main
functional division of the item, its parts and the
principles under which they operate.
7. Consider your readers requirements
8. Finally, state how the mechanism or organism
functions by taking it through a cycle of
operation.


Format: Mechanism Description
1. Introduction
a) Definition and purpose
b) Overall description (size, weight, shape, material)
c) Main parts
2. Description
a) Main part A (Def. followed by detailed description of
size, shape, material, location, method of attachment)
b) Main part B (Def. followed by overall description,
and then identification of subparts)
I. Subparts X (Def. followed by detailed description of
size, shape, material, location, method of attachment)
II. Subparts Y (same as for X)




Basic Expository Techniques in
Technical Writing
Analysis:
Analysis is a systematic and logical process of
separating or breaking up a whole into its parts, so
as to determine their nature, proportion, function, or
relationship.
In analysis, we divide a subject or a problem into its
components and study them critically to understand
the parts as well as the whole.

The process of analysis is fundamental to all
scientific and technical activity and to reporting
and communicating such activity.

Analysis aids clarity of thought by breaking
down a complex whole into as many carefully
distinguished parts as possible and helps
determine how the parts are related within the
whole.
In technical writing, the process of analysis
helps writers understand the subject under
investigation.
It enables them to see component parts and
identify the relationship of those parts to each
other and to the whole.

It helps writers to distinguish and group
together related things.
In short, analysis is the process which helps
writers understand their material and organise
it into a logical order for efficient
communication.


Classification and Partition

The basic operational element in analysis is
division.
When a group is divided into its classes, the
process is known as classification.
When a whole is divided into its parts the
process is called partition.


Classification is a useful technique in
exposition. It enables writers to systematise
widely diverse facts for presentation in an
orderly arrangement.


Summary of Analysis

1. Analysis requires thinking. It is the systematic and
logical process of separating a whole entity into its
component parts.
2. The basic operation in analysis is division. When an
assemblage of things, ideas, people, objects or
processes is divided into categories, the operation
is known as classification.

3. When a whole is divided into parts, the
process is called partition.
4. Classification defines a subject by revealing
its essence through comparison.
5. Partition defines a subject by listing and
explicating the details or parts of its essence.

6. Tables, charts, and illustrations are effective aids
in showing comparisons, similarities and
component parts in the classification and
partitioning processes.
7. Analysis helps writers to organise their subject
matter into a rational order for more effective
communication.

8. In technical writing, analysis helps both
writers and readers understand a subject; the
process helps both to see and understand the
ingredient parts and the relationship of those
parts to each other and the whole.