1

CHAPTER 1
INFINITE SERIES
2
INFINITE SERIES
Week 1 (a)
Todays Objective :

Determine and contrast the Taylor and Maclaurin
polynomials of functions
3
INFINITE SERIES
An infinite series is an expression of the form



and the nth partial sum of the series is



If the sequence of partial sums converges to a limit L,


1 2 3
1
...
k
k
a a a a

=
+ + + =

1 2 3
1
...
n
n n k
k
S a a a a a
=
= + + + + =

1 2 3
1
...
n
n n k
k
S a a a a a L
=
= + + + + = =

Example: Bouncing Ball

You drop a ball from a meter above a flat surface. Each time the ball hits
the surface after falling a distance h, it rebounds a distance rh, where r is
positive but less than 1. Find the total distance the ball travels up and down
4
INFINITE SERIES
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Taylor series at x=c follows the Maclaurin series for each function.
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
... ...
2! 3! !
k
c c c
x c c
e x c e x c e x c
e e e x c
k

= + + + + + +
( )
( ) ( )
2 3
cos cos sin cos sin ...
2! 3!
x c x c
x c x c c c c

= + +
( )
( ) ( )
2 3
sin sin cos sin cos ...
2! 3!
x c x c
x c x c c c c

= + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 1
2 3
1
1n 1n ... ...
2 3
k k
k
x c x c x c
x c
x c
c c c kc

= + + + +
2 3 4
1
1 ... ...
1
k
u u u u u
u
= + + + + + + +

And lots more

Exponential Series
Cosine Series
Sine Series
Logarithmic Series
Geometric Series
5
Taylor and Maclaurin
Polynomials
6
Maclaurin Polynomials for f(x) = sin(x).
(Also known as Taylor polynomials at x=0)
( ) 0 P x =
( ) 0 P x x = +
( )
3
0
3!
x
P x x = +
( )
3 5
0
3! 5!
x x
P x x = + + ( )
3 5 7
0
3! 5! 7!
x x x
P x x = + +
( )
3 5 7 9
0
3! 5! 7! 9!
x x x x
P x x = + + +
( )
3 5 7 9 11
0
3! 5! 7! 9! 11!
x x x x x
P x x = + + +
( )
3 5 7 9 11 13
0
3! 5! 7! 9! 11! 13!
x x x x x x
P x x = + + + +
( ) ( ) sin f x x =
8
Maclaurin Polynomials for f(x) = cos(x).
(Also known as Taylor polynomials at x=0)
( )
1 P x =
( )
2
1
2!
x
P x =
( )
2 4
1
2! 4!
x x
P x = + ( )
2 4 6
1
2! 4! 6!
x x x
P x = + ( )
2 4 6 8
1
2! 4! 6! 8!
x x x x
P x = + +
( )
2 4 6 8 10
1
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
x x x x x
P x = + + ( )
2 4 6 8 10 12
1
2! 4! 6! 8! 10! 12!
x x x x x x
P x = + + + ( )
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
1
2! 4! 6! 8! 10! 12! 14!
x x x x x x x
P x = + + +
( ) ( ) cos f x x =
10
Maclaurin Polynomials for f(x) = e(x).
(Also known as Taylor polynomials at x=0)
( ) 1 P x =
( ) 1
1!
x
P x = +
( ) 1
1! 2!
x x
P x = + +
( ) 1
1! 2! 3!
x x x
P x = + + + ( ) 1
1! 2! 3! 4!
x x x x
P x = + + + +
( ) 1
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
x x x x x
P x = + + + + + ( ) 1
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
x x x x x x
P x = + + + + + + ( ) 1
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
x x x x x x x
P x = + + + + + + +
( )
x
f x e =
12
Taylor and Maclaurin Polynomials.
http://mathdemos.gcsu.edu/mathdemos/TaylorPolynomials/index.html
13
INFINITE SERIES
Week 1 (b)
Objective :

Derive the Taylor and Maclaurin series for functions, and its
radius of convergence.
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Suppose there is an open interval I containing c throughout which
the function f and all its derivatives exist. Then the power series




is called the Taylor series of f at c.

The special case where c =0 is called the
Maclaurin series of f :


( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 3
...
1! 2! 3!
f c f c f c
f c x c x c x c
' '' '''
+ + + +
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
0 0 0
0 ...
1! 2! 3!
f f f
f x x x
' '' '''
+ + + +
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Taylor series at x=c. (Remember that for Maclaurin series x=0)
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
... ...
2! 3! !
k
c c c
x c c
e x c e x c e x c
e e e x c
k

= + + + + + +
( )
( ) ( )
2 3
cos cos sin cos sin ...
2! 3!
x c x c
x c x c c c c

= + +
( )
( ) ( )
2 3
sin sin cos sin cos ...
2! 3!
x c x c
x c x c c c c

= + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 1
2 3
1
1n 1n ... ...
2 3
k k
k
x c x c x c
x c
x c
c c c kc

= + + + +
2 3 4
1
1 ... ...
1
k
u u u u u
u
= + + + + + + +

And lots more

Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Exponential Series
Cosine Series
Sine Series
Logarithmic Series
Geometric Series
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Find the Maclaurin series for ( ) ( )
cos f x x =
Solution :
1. Set c=0 (since it is Maclaurin series)
2. Note that f is infinitely differentiable at x=0
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
4 4
2 3
2
2 4 6
0
cos 0 1
sin 0 0
cos 0 1
sin 0 0
cos 0 1
0 0 0
cos 0 ...
1! 2! 3!
1
cos 1 ...
2! 4! 6! 2 !
k
k
k
f x x f
f x x f
f x x f
f x x f
f x x f
f f f
x f x x x
x
x x x
x
k

=
= =
' ' = =
'' '' = =
''' ''' = =
= =
' '' '''
= + + + +

= + + =

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 3
...
1! 2! 3!
f c f c f c
f c x c x c x c
' '' '''
+ + + +
Find the Taylor series for :
( )
( )
( )
( )
1. at 2
2. at 0 (Mac1aurin Series)
3. sin at 0 (Mac1aurin Series)
4. sin centered at
3
x
x
f x e c
f x e c
f x x c
f x x
t
= =
= =
= =
=
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
How to define its

Radius of Convergence ?
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
The Ratio Test
1
1
1 1
1
(i) If lim 1, then the series is abso1ute1y convergent
(and therefore convergent).
(ii) If lim 1 or lim , then the series is divergent.
(iii) If lim
n
n
n
n
n
n n
n
n n
n
n n
n
a
L a
a
a a
L a
a a

+ +

=

= <
= > =

1
1, the Ratio Test is inconc1usive; that is, no conc1usion
can be drawn about the convergence or divergence of .
n
n
n
a
a
a
+

We used ratio test because involved k!, k

p
, or c
k

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Radius of Convergence
( )
( )
(i) The series converges on1y when .
The radius of convergence is 0 .
(ii) The series converges for all .
The radius of convergence is .
(iii) There is a positive number such that the
x a
R
x
R
R
=
=
=
series converges
if and diverges if . x a R x a R < >
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Radius of Convergence
( )
( ) ( )
0
1
1
Examp1e 1: ! , 1et ! . Then
1 !
1 as 0 .
!
By the Ratio Test, the series diverges when 0.
Thus, the given s
n n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n x a n x
n x
a
n x n x
a n x
x

=
+
+
=
+
= = + =
=

eries converges on1y when 0.

Then, radius of convergence, 0.
x
R
=
=
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Radius of Convergence
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
0
1
1
1
3 3
Examp1e 2: , 1et . Then
3 3

1 1 1
3
1
3 3 as
1
By the Ratio Test, the series is conve
n n
n
n
n n
n
n
n
n
x x
a
n n
x x
a n n
a n n
x
x x n

=
+
+

=

= =
+ +

=
+

rgent,
when 3 1 and divergent when 3 1
Then, radius of convergence, 1.
x x
R
< >
=
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Radius of Convergence
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
0
1 2
2 1
2 2
1
2 2
2 2 2 1
2
2
1 1
Examp1e 3: , 1et . Then
2 ! 2 !
1 2 ! 1

1 2 1
2 1 !
0 as
4 1
By th
n n
n n
n
n n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n n
n
x x
a
n n
x n x
a
a
x n
n
x
n
n

=
+
+
+
+

=

= =
+
+ (

=
+

e Ratio Test, the series converges for a11 .

Then, radius of convergence, .
x
R =
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Find the Radius of Convergence for :
(Note that, you must determine the Taylor series for below functions first)
( )
( )
( )
( )
1. at 2
2. at 0 (Mac1aurin Series)
3. sin at 0 (Mac1aurin Series)
4. sin centered at
3
x
x
f x e c
f x e c
f x x c
f x x
t
= =
= =
= =
=
25
INFINITE SERIES
Week 1 (c)
Todays Objective :

Solve operations with Taylor and Maclaurin
series.
26
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Questions :

Proved that :

1. The Maclaurin series for


2. The Taylor series at x = c for
2 3
1
1 ... ...
1
k
x x x x
x
= + + + + + +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 1
2 3
1
1n 1n ... ...
2 3
k k
k
x c x c x c
x c
x c
c c c kc

= + + + +
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Now, we look on the
Operations with

Taylor and Maclaurin Series
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
( )
( )
( )
2
2
0
2
2 4 6 2
2
2
0
1
Find the Mac1aurin series for
1
So1ution:
Note that, the Mac1aurin for
1
1 ...
1
Then, by substitution , we have
1 1
1 ... 1
1
1
k
k
k
k
k
x
x x x
x
x x
x x x x
x
x

=
+
= + + + =

= = + + =
+

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
( )
2
5 2
1.
3 2
1
2. 1n
1
3. cos
x
f x
x
x
x
x

=
+
+
| |
|

\ .
Hint: Use long division and
modifying a geometric series
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THE END
DO YOUR TUTORIAL !!