Revision

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 Sample and population
− Sample
 A sample is a group of units selected from a
larger group (the population).
 By studying the sample it is hoped to draw
valid conclusions about the larger group.

 Population
 A population is any entire collection of
people, animals, plants or things from which
we may collect data. It is the entire group we
are interested in, which we wish to describe
or draw conclusions about. 2
 Statistic
− A statistic is a quantity that is calculated
from a sample of data.

− It is used to give information about unknown

values in the corresponding population.

 For example, the average of the data in a

sample is used to give information about the
overall average in the population from which
that sample was drawn.

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 Statistic
− It is possible to draw more than one sample
from the same population and the value of a
statistic will in general vary from sample to
sample.

 For example, the average value in a sample

is a statistic. The average values in more
than one sample, drawn from the same
population, will not necessarily be equal.

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 Statistic
− Statistics are often assigned Roman letters (e.g. m
and s), whereas the equivalent unknown values in
the population (parameters ) are assigned Greek
letters (e.g. µ and σ ).

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 A random variable
− A random variable (observations) is a function that
associates a unique numerical value with every outcome
of an experiment.

− The value of the random variable will vary from trial to

trial as the experiment is repeated.

− There are two types of random variable

 discrete
• Examples of discrete random variables include the number
of children in a family, the Friday night attendance at a
cinema, the number of patients in a doctor's surgery, the
number of defective light bulbs in a box of ten.
 continuous.
• Examples include height, weight, the amount of sugar in an
orange, the time required to run a mile

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 Expected Value
− The expected value (or population mean) of a
random variable indicates its average or central
value.
− It is a useful summary value (a number) of the
variable's distribution.
− Stating the expected value gives a general
impression of the behaviour of some random
variable without giving full details of its probability
distribution (if it is discrete) or its probability
density function (if it is continuous).
− The expected value of a random variable X is
symbolized by E(X) or µ.

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 Expected Value
− The expected value
from the roll of an
ordinary six-sided “die”
is given

− which is not among the

possible outcomes.
− A common application
of expected value is
gambling

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 Mean ,Median and Mode
− The mean is the sum of all the data divided
by the number of pieces of data.

− The median is the number that lies in the

middle when all of the data numbers are
written in order.

− The mode is the number that appears the

most in the data

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 Variance
− The variance of a random variable is a non-
negative number which gives an idea of how widely
spread the values of the random variable are likely
to be

 The larger the variance, the more scattered the

observations on average.

− Stating the variance gives an impression of how

closely concentrated round the expected value the
distribution is

 it is a measure of the 'spread' of a distribution about

its average value.
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 Variance
− Variance is symbolised by V(X) or Var(X) or ð 2

− The unit of variance is the square of the unit of

the original variable.

− The variance of the random variable X is defined

to be:

−where E(X) is the expected value of the random

variable X.
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 Variance
− the larger the variance, the further that individual values
of the random variable (observations) tend to be from the
mean
− the smaller the variance, the closer that individual values
of the random variable (observations) tend to be to the
mean
− taking the square root of the variance gives the standard
deviation, i.e.:

− the variance and standard deviation of a random variable

are always non-negative

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 Standard deviation
− Standard deviation is a measure of deviation
from a reference value (mean) of certain
values of a sample.

This is calculated as follows,

s = squreroot{ E(x^2) - E(x)^2}

where E(x) = expected value of "x"

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 Standard deviation
− A low standard deviation indicates that the
data is clustered around the mean, whereas
a high standard deviation indicates that the
data is widely spread with significantly
higher/lower figures than the mean.

− Unlike variance, Standard Deviation is

expressed in the same units as the data

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A data set with a mean of 50 (shown in blue) and
a standard deviation (σ) of 20.

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 Probability and Probability Distribution
− Probability is the chance that something is the case or that an
event will occur

− Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with

analysis of random phenomena. The central objects of probability
theory are random variables, stochastic processes, and events:
mathematical abstractions of non-deterministic events or
measured quantities that may either be single occurrences or
evolve over time in an apparently random fashion

− A probability distribution identifies either

 the probability of each value of an unidentified random variable
(when the variable is discrete),
 or the probability of the value falling within a particular interval
(when the variable is continuous).
 The probability function describes the range of possible values
that a random variable can attain and the probability that the
value of the random variable is within any (measurable) subset of
that range. 16
 Probability Distribution
− It is also sometimes called the probability
function or the probability mass function.
− More formally, the probability distribution of
a discrete random variable X is a function
which gives the probability p(xi) that the
random variable equals xi, for each value xi:
 p(xi) = P(X=xi)

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 Characterization of probability distribution
− There are various ways to characterize a
probability distribution.

 The most visual is the probability density

function (PDF).
 Equivalent way is the cumulative distribution
function

• It is evaluated at a number (lower-case) x, is the

probability of the event that a random variable
(capital) X with that distribution is less than or
equal to x.
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 Cumulative Distribution Function
− All random variables (discrete and continuous)
have a cumulative distribution function.
− It is a function giving the probability that the
random variable X is less than or equal to x, for
every value x.
− Formally, the cumulative distribution function F(x)
is defined to be:

− For

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 Cumulative Distribution Function
− Example
− Discrete case : Suppose a random variable X
has the following probability distribution
p(xi):

 Xi 0 1 2 3
4 5

 p(xi) 1/32 5/32 10/32 10/32

5/32 1/32
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 Cumulative Distribution Function

−The cumulative distribution function F(x) is

then:

 Xi 0 1 2 3
4 5

 F(xi) 1/32 6/32 16/32 26/32

31/32 32/32

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 Probability density function
− As random variable has either an associated
probability distribution (discrete random variable) or
probability density function (continuous random
variable )

− PDF is a statistical measure that defines a probability

distribution for a random variable 

− When the PDF function is graphically portrayed, the

area under the graph will indicate the interval under
which the variable with fall.

− A function representing the relative distribution of the

frequency of a continuous random variable from
which parameters such as its mean and variance can
be derived,
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 Probability Density Function
− More formally, the probability density function, f(x),
of a continuous random variable X is the derivative
of the cumulative distribution function F(x):

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 Probability Density Function
− If X is a discrete random variable with possible
values x1, x2, x3, ..., xn,
 and p(xi) denotes P(X = xi), then the expected value
of X is defined by:

 where the elements are summed over all values of
the random variable X.

− If X is a continuous random variable with

probability density function f(x), then the expected
value of X is defined by:

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 Normal Distribution and Gaussian Distribution
− Normal distributions model (some) continuous random variables

− The normal distribution, also called the “Gaussian Distribution”, is an important

family of continuous probability distributions, applicable in many fields.

− A continuous random variable X, taking all real values in the range is

said to follow a Normal distribution with parameters µ and  if it has probability
density function

− This probability density function (p.d.f.) is a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve,

centered at its expected value µ and the variance is ð 2

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 Normal Distribution and Gaussian Distribution
− Many distributions
arising in practice can be
approximated by a
Normal distribution.
− Other random variables
may be transformed to
normality.
− The simplest case of the
normal distribution,
known as the Standard
Normal Distribution, has
expected value zero and
variance one.
− This is written as N(0,1).
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 Normal Distribution and Gaussian Distribution
− The continuous probability
density function of the normal
distribution is the Gaussian
function

− The probability density function

has notable properties including:
 symmetry about its mean μ
 the mode and median both equal
the mean μ
 the inflection points of the curve
occur one standard deviation
away from the mean, i.e. at μ − σ
and μ + σ.

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 Other Distributions
− Poisson distributions model discrete random
variables
− Binomial distributions model discrete random
variables
− Geometric distributions model discrete random
variables
− Uniform distributions model continuous and
discrete random variables

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 Multipaths: Power-Delay Profile

Power
path-1
path-2
path-3
multi-path propagation path-2
Path Delay

path-1

path-3
Mobile Station (MS)
Base Station (BS)

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 Central limit theorem

− If the number of received waves N becomes very large

and all are independent and identically distributed
(i.i.d.), the central limit theorem says that I(t0) and Q(t0)
are (zero-mean) Gaussian random variables (, each with
variance σ 2 ).

− The larger the value of the sample size N, the better the
approximation to the normally distributed.

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 Central limit theorem
− The central limit theorem says that the distribution
of a sum of many independent, identically
distributed random variables tends towards the
normal distribution.
− If a data distribution is approximately normal then
 about 68% of the values are within 1 standard
deviation of the mean (mathematically, μ ± σ, where
μ is the arithmetic mean),
 about 95% of the values are within two standard
deviations (μ ± 2σ),
 and about 99.7% lie within 3 standard deviations (μ
± 3σ).
 This is known as the 68-95-99.7 rule, or the empirical
rule. 31
 PDF of received signal amplitude
− In order to obtain the probability density
function (PDF) of the signal amplitude “ρ” of
a Rayleigh fading signal, we observe the
random processes of the inphase and
quadrature components, I(t) and Q(t) ,
respectively, at one particular instant t0.

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 PDF of received signal amplitude
− Received signal (in black)
consisting of N = 5
reflected waves (in blue).
− The resulting signal
amplitude “ρ” consists of
an inphase component I
and a quadrature
component Q.
− If the antenna moves the
relative phases of the
reflected waves change
over time, so “ρ”, I and Q
become a function of − Phasor diagram of a set of
time t. scattered waves

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 PDF of received signal amplitude
A received signal amplitude is given as the sum of delayed
components. In terms of phasor notation it is given as:

N
S r (t ) = ∑ ai cos (2πf c + φi )
i =1

Or
N N
S r (t ) = cos(2πf c t ) ∑ ai cos (φi ) − sin( 2πf c t ) ∑ ai sin(φi )
i =1 i =1

In-phase Quadrature
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 PDF of received signal amplitude
The phaseφ i can be assumed to be uniformly distributed in
the range (0, 2π ), provided the locations of buildings etc. are
completely random.

This for large N, the amplitude of the received signal is:

S r (t ) = X cos(2πf c t ) − Y sin(2πf c t )
N N
where X = ∑ ai cos (φi ), Y = ∑ ai sin(φi )
i =1 i =1

X and Y are independent, identically distributed Gaussian random

variables. 35
 PDF of received signal amplitude
The envelope of the received signal is:
2 2 0.5
A = (X + Y ) Which will be Rayleigh distributed.

Rayleigh
Probability
density
function
Exponential

A or power P 36
 Major Categories of Fading –We already know
− Large Scale Fading :

− Small Scale Fading :

 Could be 20-30 dB over a fraction of a wavelength.

 Caused by the
• superposition or cancellation of multipath propagation signals
• the speed of the transmitter or receiver
• the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

 Also known as “Multipath Fading” or “Rayleigh Fading”

 The type of fading experienced by a signal propagating

through a channel can be determined by the nature of the
transmitted signal with respect to the characteristics of the
channel. 37
 Fading Distributions
− Fading Distribution describes how the received signal
amplitude changes with time.

 Remember that the received signal is combination

of multiple signals arriving from different
directions, phases and amplitudes.

 When a received signal experiences fading during

transmission, both its envelope and phase
fluctuate over time.

 With the received signal we name the envelope of

the received signal (i.e. r(t)).

− Fading Distributions are statistical characterization of

the multipath fading. 38
 Fading channel characterization and modeling
− Although channel fading is experienced as an
unpredictable and stochastic phenomenon to the user
or the system planner, powerful models have been
developed that can accurately predict average system
performance.

− The result is a range of relatively simple and accurate

statistical models for fading channels

− Countermeasures can be used to avoid system failure,

even if the channel exhibits fades at particular
frequencies of particular locations

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 Fading channel characterization and modeling
− Different models exist to study the statistical behaviour
and to calculate the probability density function (PDF) of
the received signal envelope for short term fading.

− These models vary from each other depending on the

assumption made for calculating the PDF.

− The widely employed statistical distributions are

 the Rayleigh
 the Rician
 the Nakagami
 the Weibull
 the Log-Normal
 and the Suzuki
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 Rayleigh Distributions
− Describe the received signal envelope distribution for channels,
where all the components are non-LOS:
 i.e. there is no line-of–sight (LOS) component.
− This model has played a major role in our understanding of mobile
propagation.

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A sample of a Rayleigh fading signal

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 A sample of a Rayleigh fading signal
− A sample of a Rayleigh fading signal shows

 Signal amplitude (in dB) versus time for an

antenna moving at constant velocity.

 Notice the deep fades that occur

occasionally.

 Although fading is a random process, deep

fades have a tendency to occur
approximately every half a wavelength of
motion. 43
 A sample of a Rayleigh fading signal
− Rayleigh fading is caused by Multipath
reception.

− The mobile antenna receives a large

number, say “N”, reflected and scattered
waves.

− Because of wave cancellation effects, the

instantaneous received power seen by a
moving antenna becomes a random
variable, dependent on the location of the
antenna 44
 RayleIgh Distributions
− The Rayleigh distribution is
commonly used to describe the
statistical time varying nature of
the received envelope of a flat
fading signal, or the envelope of
an individual multipath
component.

− As Envelope of the sum of two

Gaussian signals obeys a Rayleigh
distribution.

− Figure 4.15 shows a Rayleigh

distributed signal envelope as a
function of time.

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 Model of Rayleigh fading

− It is a statistical model for the effect of a

propagation environment on a radio signal,

− Rayleigh fading is viewed as a reasonable

model for tropospheric and ionospheric signal
propagation as well as the effect of heavily
built-up urban environments on radio signals.

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 Model of Rayleigh fading
− Model of Rayleigh fading assumes

 The lack of the effect of a dominant line-of-sight component.

 a received multipath signal to consist of a (theoretically infinitely)

large number of reflected waves with a random phase with
uniform distribution in the range (0-2π)

 that the magnitude of a signal that has passed through such a

transmission medium (also called a communications channel) will vary
randomly, or fade, according to a Rayleigh distribution

 Each in-phase and quadrature component of the resultant is a

combination of a large number of waves and by virtue of the
central limit theorem, becomes a Gaussian random variable and
the resultant envelope of the in-phase and quadrature components
will be Rayleigh distributed.
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 Model of Rayleigh fading
− This model of many randomly phased sinusoids
appeared to appropriately describes
 the wireless radio channel
 and to allow calculation of
• outage probabilities
• fade durations
• and many other critical parameters of wireless links.

− It greatly facilitated the development systems that

can reliably communicate despite the anomalies
and unpredictability of the mobile communication
channel

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 Rayleigh Fading Distribution and its PDF
− The Rayleigh distribution has a probability density function (pdf)
given by
r r2
 exp( − ) 0 ≤ r ≤∞
p ( r ) = σ2 2σ2
0 r <0


− An important application of a probability density function is the

calculation of outage probabilities, that is the probability that the
signal strength drops below a certain threshold level
− r = magnitude of envelope ( Received signal envelope voltage r (volts)
− σ = the rms value of the received voltage
− σ 2 = Variance = the total received power P of the received signal

49
 Rayleigh Fading Distribution and its PDF

− σ is the standard deviation and is equal to

 2r 
4− π 2 
 

• r2=is the instantaneous power.

− rpeak =σ

− p(σ )=0.6065/σ

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 Rayleigh Fading Distribution and its PDF
2 P0 = 2σ 2 is the mean square power of the component
subject to short-term fading

− σ =Variance which represents total received power P

2

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 Mean and Median

− The values of Mean and Median of the Rayleigh

distribution is given by
∞
π
rmean = E[ r ] = ∫ rp ( r ) dr =σ =1.2533 σ
0
2
rmedian
1
rmedian =1.177 σ found by solving
2
= ∫ p(r )dr
0

rrms = 2σ

52
 Variance
∞
Mean Square := E[r ] = ∫ r 2 p(r)dr = 2 P0 = 2σ 2
2
0

The variance of the Rayleigh distribution is given by

2
Variance := σ r = E[r 2 ] − ( E[r ]) 2 = 0.4292 P0 = 0.4292σ 2
∞ σ 2π
σ = E [ r ]− E [ r ] = ∫ r p ( r )dr −
2
r
2 2 2
= 0.4292 σ 2
0 2
which represents the ac power in the signal envelope.

mean = 1.2533σ
median = 1.177σ
variance = 0.4292σ 2

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 RayleIgh Distributions
− Mean and the median differ by only
0.55 dB in a Rayleigh fading signal.

− It is customary to use median values

instead of the mean values, since
fading data are usually measured in
the field and a particular distribution
cannot be assumed.

− By using median values instead of

mean values it is easy to compare
different fading distributions which
may have widely varying mean

54
 Rayleigh PDF

0.7

0.6 0.6065/σ
mean = 1.2533σ
0.5 median = 1.177σ
variance = 0.4292σ 2

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
σ 2 3 4σ 5σ
σ σ
55
Rayleigh PDF

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 Rayleigh CDF
− The probability that the envelope of the received
signal (Envelope ) does not exceed a specified value of
R is given by the Cumulative Distribution function

R R2
− 2
P ( R ) = Pr (r ≤ R) = ∫ p (r )dr = 1 − e 2σ

57
 PDF of Received Power
− The instantaneous power has the exponential pdf

Rayleigh
Probability
density
function
Exponential
58
A or power P
 Revision
− Bessel Differential Equation
 The Bessel differential equation is the linear second-
order ordinary differential equation given by

− Equivalently, dividing through by x2 ,

− Bessel functions
 The solutions to this equation define the Bessel
functions
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 Revision
− There are two classes of solution, called
 the Bessel function of the first kind

 and Bessel function of the second kind

 A Bessel function of the third kind, more

commonly called a Hankel function, is a
special combination of the first and second
kinds.)

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 Ricean Distribution
− When there is a dominant, stationary (non-fading) LOS
signal present, then the received envelope distribution
is Ricean.
 i.e. there is one LOS component.
− Rayleigh + direct path
− Good for rural areas

61
 Ricean Distributions
− If the received signal is a combination of a number of indirect paths and a
direct line-of-sight path then the received signal envelope will follow the
Rician distribution

62
 Ricean Distributions
− Consequently, the mean of two random variables,
representing the I and Q components, does not remain
zero.

− But when the dominant path becomes weaker, the

distribution approaches to Rayleigh.

− The power of the direct component will have to be greater

than the total multipath power before it can affect the
Rayleigh distribution.

− Rice Distribution also applies whenever one path is much

stronger than the other multi-path.

63
Ricean Distributions

64
 Rician Fading
Besides the dominant component, the mobile antenna
receives a large number of reflected and scattered waves.

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 Ricean Fading Distribution

 r ( r 2 + A2 ) Ar
 2 exp[− ]I 0 ( 2 ) 0 ≤ r ≤ ∞, A≥0
p ( r ) = σ 2σ 2
σ
0 r <0


Power in constant part

K=
Power in random part

66
 Ricean Fading Distribution
− The Bessel function i s defined as

67
 Ricean Fading Distribution & Rician K Factor

− K factor ratio between direct path and NLOS paths

− K is known as the “Ricean factor” and is usually expressed in db

A2
K =
2σ2

− It has a great impact on the bit error rate performance of a communication system.

− As the K factor increases, the probability of encountering a deep fade reduces, and
consequently the mean error rate decreases.

68
 Probability density function of Ricean distributions:
− The Rice channel is considered more friendly as
compared to Rayleigh, which is regarded as the worst
case mobile channel.
− As A→0, K → -∞ dB, Ricean distribution degenerates to
Rayleigh distribution.

69
 Ricean Fading
Cont….Distribution

− The fading parameter K is a measure of the severity of

the fading: a small K implies severe fading, a large K
implies more mild fading

70
Ricean Fading
Cont Distribution

71
Rice time series

72
 Summary
− Fading distribution depends on environment
 NLOS: Rayleigh distribution
• Amplitude pdf: Rayleigh
• Power pdf: exponential
• Phase: uniformly distributed over [-π, π]

− LOS: Ricean distribution

• Amplitude pdf: Ricean
• Phase: not uniform, more complicated

73
 Nakagami fading
− As some experimental data does not fit well into either of
Rayleigh and Rician distributions distributions. The Nakagami
distribution was selected to fit empirical data, and is known to
provide a closer match to some experimental data than either the
Rayleigh, Ricean, or lognormal distributions

− “Nakagami distribution” matches empirical data better than other

models .

− Refined model for the pdf of a signal amplitude exposed to mobile

fading is called Nakagami

− The Nakagami distribution was introduced by Nakagami in the

early 1940’s to characterize rapid fading

74
 Nakagami Model
− In many cases the received signal can not be described as a pure LOS +
diffuse components
− The Nakagami distribution is often used in such cases and it describes
the magnitude of the received envelope by the probability density
function:

m mr 2
2  m 2 m−1 −
P(r ) =  r e Ω
Γ(m) Ω
 
( r )
2
2
1
m= ≥, (mΓ) is G am m a function and
2
r Ω =
( r− r )2 2

 r =envelope amplitude
 Ω = the average received power or average CNR (link carrier to
noise ratio (CNR),

75
 Nakagami Math
− If the envelope is Nakagami distributed, the
corresponding instantaneous power is
gamma distributed.

− The Nakagami distribution or the Nakagami

−m distribution is a probability distribution
related to the gamma distribution.

76
 Nakagami Model and Parameter m
• The parameter m is the fading figure or shape factor that denotes the
severity of the fading.

− The parameter m is known as the shape factor of Nakagami or gamma

distribution.

• The severity of the fading decreases (Rayleigh to Nakagami with m = 2),

the capacity difference between the various adaptive policies also
decreases, and their respective capacities approach that of the AWGN
channel.

77
 Nakagami Model and Parameter m
− For m = 1
 the distribution reduces to Rayleigh fading.
 Rayleigh fading is recovered, with an exponentially distributed
instantaneous power
− For m>1,
 the fluctuations of the signal strength are reduced as compared to
Rayleigh Fading

− For m = (K +1)2 /(2K +1)

 the distribution is approximately Rician fading with parameter K.

− For m = ∞
• the distribution is without fading i.e. AWGN with no fading.

78
 Nakagami Model and Parameter m

P(r)

79
 Nakagami Model
• This model is a general model. The Rayleigh
and Rician distributions can be derived out
of the above relationship by assigning
appropriate values to m.

80
Suzuki Model

81
Suzuki Model

82
 Weibull Model

− The Weibull fading can be used as a simple statistical

model of fading (named after Waloddi Weibull).

− In probability theory and statistics, the Weibull

distribution is a continuous probability distribution.

− The probability density function of a Weibull random

variable x is

83
 Weibull Model
− where “k” is the “shape parameter” and “λ” is the
“scale parameter” (The larger the scale parameter, the
more spread out the distribution ) of the distribution.

− The Weibull distribution can mimic the behavior of

other statistical distributions such as the normal and
the exponential.

84
 Weibull Model
− Under certain parameterizations, the Weibull distribution
reduces to several other familiar distributions:

− When k = 1, it is the exponential distribution.

− When k = 2, it becomes equivalent to the Rayleigh distribution,

− When k = 3.4, it appears similar to the normal distribution.

− In wireless communications, the Weibull fading distribution

seems to exhibit good fit to experimental fading channel
measurements for both indoor and outdoor environments.

85
Weibull Model

86
Level Crossing Rate (LCR)& Average Fade Duration( AFD) Statistics

− The Rayleigh and Rician fading statistics merely

provide information on the overall percentage of time
that the signal goes below a certain level.

− Information pertaining to the rapidity with which the

signal level changes between different levels can not
be obtained from these statistics.

87
 Level Crossing Rate (LCR)& Average Fade Duration( AFD) Statistics

− Level crossing rate (how often the envelope crosses a specified

level) and average fade duration (how long the envelope
remains below a specified level are second order statistics used
to quantify the deep fades experienced by the fading envelop
and used to :

 Measure the effects of Rayleigh fading on a communications

channel
 Useful for designing error control techniques to assure
performance of mobile systems
 Useful for designing diversity schemes to be used in mobile
communication systems
 Determined by velocity of mobile and local mean power level

− These quantities are second order statistics, because they are

not only affected by the scattering environment but also by the
velocity of the MS
88
 Level Crossing Rate (LCR)& Average Fade Duration( AFD) Statistics

− Measurable parameters linked to the Doppler spectrum

89
 Level Crossing Rate (LCR)

− Important second order statistics that make the Mobile to-

Mobile channels significantly different from Fixed-to-Mobile
channels

− The Level Crossing Rate is a measure of the rapidity of the

fading. It quantifies how often the fading crosses some
threshold, in the positive (or negative ) going direction.

− Obtaining the level crossing rate requires the “pdf of the

envelope level” and the “Envelope Slope”

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 Level Crossing Rate (LCR)

hreshold crossing. Threshold R is crossed with derivative dr/dt.

−The above crossing of the threshold R with width dr lasts for dt

seconds. The derivative of the signal amplitude, with respect to time,
is dr / dt.

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 Level Crossing Rate (LCR)
− If the signal always crosses the threshold with the same
derivative, then:
 Average number of crossings per second *time duration
= Probability that the amplitude is in the interval [R, R +
dr].

− The probability that the signal amplitude is within

the window [R, R + dr] is known from the
probability density of the signal amplitude, which
can for instance be Rayleigh, Rician or Nakagami.

− The expected number of crossings per second is

found by integrating over all possible derivatives.
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 Level Crossing Rate (LCR) of Rayleigh Fading Envelope

Threshold (R)

LCR is defined as the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading

envelope, normalized to the local rms signal level, crosses a specified
threshold level R in a positive going direction.
direction It is given by:

N R = 2π f m ρe −ρ2

where

ρ = R / rrms (specfied envelope value normalized to rms)

N R : crossings per second

fm = Maximum Doppler frequency

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 Example
− For a Rayleigh fading signal, compute the
positive-going level crossing rate for ρ = 1,
when the maximum Doppler frequency is
20 Hz.

− What is the maximum velocity of the mobile

for this Doppler frequency if the carrier
frequency is 900 MHz?

94
 Solution

ρ =1
fm = 20 Hz
The number of level crossings is:
NR = √ 2π (20) e-1
= 18.44 Crossings/Sec
Maximum velocity of mobile
= fd λ = 20 (3 X 108)/(900X106)
= 6.66 m/s

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 Average Fade Duration (AFD)
− Quantifies how long the signal spends below the
threshold.
− The received signal will experience periods of:
 Sufficient signal strength or "non-fade
intervals", during which the receiver can work
reliably and at low bit error rate.

− If the user is stationary almost no time

variations of the channel occur (except if
reflecting elements in the environment move).

96
Average Fade Duration (AFD)

97
Average Fade Duration (AFD)
Cont…..

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 Average Fade Duration (AFD)
− The average fade duration is defined as
 “The average period of time for which the received
signal is below a specified level ”.

− For a Rayleigh fading signal, the average fade

duration as a function of “ρ” and “fm” can be
expressed as

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 Average Fade Duration (AFD)
− Average duration that
the envelop level
remains below R

 Depends on maximum
Doppler frequency,
velocity
 Dictates performance
measure
 Determines the
number of bits that will
be lost in a fade

100
 Average Fade Duration (AFD)
− If there is a particular fade margin built into the
mobile communication system, it is appropriate to
evaluate the receiver performance by determining
the rate at which the input signal falls below a given
level B, and how long it remains below the level, on
average.

− This is useful for relating SNR during a fade to the

instantaneous BER which results.

−Fade duration must be considered for interleaver

design

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 Revision -Interleaving

− Interleaving is the process of rearranging the bits.

− Interleaving allows the error correction algorithms

to correct more of the errors that could have
occurred during transmission.

− By interleaving the data, there is less possibility

that a whole chuck of data can be lost.

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Revision -Interleaving

103
 Revision -Interleaving

− Consider this example to see how interleaving

works

−  We need to transmit 20 bits. Furthermore, 10 bits

can be transmitted in one transmission burst, and
the error correcting mechanism can correct 3
errors per 10 bits.

104
 Revision -Interleaving

− With interleaving the receiver is able to get all 20

bits correctly but without interleaving we lose 1
complete burst.

− In GSM , in order to minimize the effect of sudden

fades on the received data ,the total of 456
encoded bits within each 20 ms speech frames or
control message frame are broken in to eight 57 bit
sub blocks.

− With a resulting data rate of 456/20 ms = 22.8

Kbps, which is the GSM traffic channel data rate
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Average Fade Duration Impacts Interleaver Depth

106
De-interleaving

107
 Example
− Find the average fade duration for threshold levels
p = 0.01, p = 0.1, and p = I, when the Doppler
frequency is 200 Hz.

108
Solution

109
 Example
− A. Find the average fade duration for a
threshold level of p = 0.707 when the
Doppler frequency is 20 Hz.
− B. For a binary digital modulation with bit
duration of 50 bps, is the Rayleigh fading
slow or fast?
− C. What is the average number of bit errors
per second for the given data rate.
Assume that a bit error occurs whenever
any portion of a bit encounters a fade for
which p < 0.1
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 Solution

− A. Average Fade Duration = 18.3 ms=0.018 s

− B. For a data rate of 50 bps,
Bit period is 20 ms=.02s.
Since the bit period > average fade duration,
for the given data rate the signal undergoes fast Rayleigh
fading.
− C. For p = 0.1
Using above equation , the average fade duration is equal to 0.002 s.
This is less than the duration of one bit.
Therefore, only one bit (on average) will be lost during a fade.

111
 Solution
 Using equation below , the number of level crossings
for p = 0.1 is N,. = 4.96 crossings per seconds.
−ρ 2
N R = 2π f m ρe
where

ρ = R / rrms (specfied envelope value normalized to rms)

N R : crossings per second

 Since a bit error is assumed to occur whenever a

portion of a bit encounters a fade,
 and since average fade duration spans only a fraction
of a bit duration,
 the total number of bits in error is 5 per second
 resulting in a BER = (5/50) = 0.1.
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Fast and Slow Fadings Overview

113
 Example

−Calculate the level-crossing rate at a

level of -10dB and average duration of
fade for a cellular system of 900MHz.
 vehicle speed=24km/h
 free-space speed of propagation of
electromagnetic wave = 3× 108 m/s
 Neglect the effects of the motion of the
scatters.
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 Example

− A mobile system operating at 900 MHz and a

speed of 100Km/hr, how many times would
you expect the signal to drop more than 20
dB below its RMS value in one minute?

− How many times for 30dB fades?

− How would there is change if the carrier

frequency were increased to 1800 MHzs and
the speed reduced to 50 Km/hr?

115