Measurement and Scaling

Some Key Concepts

Measurement
Assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics
of objects being measured, according to
predetermined rules.
Concept (or Construction of Measurement)
A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes.
Relatively concrete constructs
Age, gender, number of children, education, income
Relatively abstract constructs
Brand loyalty, personality, channel power, satisfaction
Scaling
The generation of a continuum upon which measured
objects are located.
Scale
A quantifying measure a combination of items that
is progressively arranged according to value or
magnitude.
Purpose is to quantitatively represent an items,
persons, or events place in the scaling continuum.
Some Key Concepts
Primary
Scales
Nominal
Scale
Ordinal
Scale
Ratio
Scale
Interval
Scale
Figure
9.3
Primary
Scales
of
Measur
ement
Levels of Measurement -
Primary Scales
Nominal [categorization]
A scale in which the numbers or letters
assigned to objects serve as labels for
identification or classification.
Ordinal [Categorization + rank and order]
A scale that arranges objects or
alternatives according to their magnitude
in an ordered relationship.
Primary Scales of Measurement
I nterval [Equal distance between any two consecutive measures]
A scale that both arranges objects
according to their magnitudes and
Distinguishes the ordered arrangement in
units of equal intervals
I.e., indicate order and measure order
(or distance) in units of equal intervals
Ex. Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales

Primary Scales of Measurement
Ratio
A scale that has absolute rather than
relative quantities and an absolute
zero where a given attribute is absent.
Money & weight are good examples
of attributes that possess absolute
zeros and interval properties.
Primary Scales of Measurement
7 3 8
Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale
Nominal Numbers
Assigned
to Runners

Ordinal Rank Order
of Winners

Interval Performance
Rating on a
0 to 10 Scale

Ratio Time to
Finish, in
Seconds
Third
place
Second
place
First
place
Finish
Finish
8.2 9.1 9.6
15.2 14.1 13.4
Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale Basic
Characteristics
Common
Examples
Marketing
Examples
Nominal Numbers identify
& classify objects
Social Security
nos., numbering
of football players
Brand nos., store
types
Percentages,
mode
Chi-square,
binomial test
Ordinal Nos. indicate the
relative positions
of objects but not
the magnitude of
differences
between them
Quality rankings,
rankings of teams
in a tournament
Preference
rankings, market
position, social
class
Percentile,
median
Rank-order
correlation,
Friedman
ANOVA
Ratio Zero point is fixed,
ratios of scale
values can be
compared
Length, weight Age, sales,
income, costs
Geometric
mean, harmonic
mean
Coefficient of
variation
Permissible Statistics
Descriptive Inferential
Interval Differences
between objects
Temperature
(Fahrenheit)
Attitudes,
opinions, index
Range, mean,
standard
Product-
moment
Comparison of Measurement Scales
Label Order Distance Origin

Nominal scale Yes No No No

Ordinal scale Yes Yes No No

Interval scale Yes Yes Yes No

Ratio scale Yes Yes Yes Yes
Comparative Scales
Involve the direct comparison of
two or more objects
Non-comparative Scales
Objects or stimuli are scaled
independently of each other.

Classifying Scaling Techniques
Scaling
Techniques
Comparative
Scales
Paired
Comparison
Constant
Sum
Rank
Order
Noncomparative
Scales
Itemized
Rating Scales
Continuous
Rating Scales
Likert
Semantic
Differential
Stapel
Figure
9.5 A
Classific
ation of
Scaling
Techniq
ues
Classifying Scaling Techniques
Respondent is presented with two objects at a
time
Asked to select one object in the pair according to
some criterion
Data obtained are ordinal in nature
Arranged or ranked in order of magnitude
Easy to do if only a few items are compared.
If number of comparisons is too large,
respondents may become fatigued and no longer
carefully discriminate among them.
Paired Comparison Scaling
Paired Comparison Items
A and B
A and C
A and D
B and C
B and D
C and D
If we have brands A, B, C and D, we would have
respondents compare
Usually limited to N < 15
Paired Comparison
Please indicate which of the following airlines you
prefer by circling your more preferred airline in each
pair:
Air Canada WestJet
Air Transat Air Canada
Zip WestJet
WestJet Air Transat
Air Canada Zip
Zip Air Transat
Respondents are presented with several
objects simultaneously
Then asked to order or rank them
according to some criterion.
Data obtained are ordinal in nature
Arranged or ranked in order of magnitude
Commonly used to measure preferences
among brands and brand attributes
Rank Order Scaling
Rank the following soft-drinks from 1 (best) to 5 (worst) according
to your taste preference:
Coca-Cola _____
7-Up _____
Dr. Pepper _____
Pepsi-Cola _____
Mountain Dew _____
Rank-Order Scales
Top and bottom rank choices are easy
Middle ranks are usually most difficult
Brand Rank Order (1 to 10)

1. Crest
2. Colgate
3. Aim
4. Mentadent
5. Macleans
6. Ultra Brite
7. Close Up
8. Pepsodent
9. Plus White
10. Stripe
Respondents are asked to allocate a constant
sum of units among a set of stimulus objects
with respect to some criterion
Units allocated represent the importance
attached to the objects.
Data obtained are interval in nature
Allows for fine discrimination among
alternatives
Constant Sum Scaling
Constant Sum Scale
Please divide 100 points among the following characteristics
so the division reflects the relative importance of each
characteristic to you in the selection of a bank
Hours of service _______________
Friendliness _______________
Distance from home _______________
Investment vehicles _______________
Parking facilities _______________

Constant Sum Scales
Allocate a total of 100 points among the following soft-drinks
depending on how favorable you feel toward each; the more
highly you think of each soft-drink, the more points you should
allocate to it. (Please check that the allocated points add to 100.)
Coca-Cola _____ points
7-Up _____ points
Dr. Pepper _____ points
Tab _____ points
Pepsi-Cola _____ points
100

COMPARATIVE SCALES
Compared to Chevrolet, Ford is:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
less about the more
innovative same innovative
Non-Comparative Scaling
Noncomparative
Rating Scales
Continuous
Rating Scales
Itemized
Rating Scales
Semantic
Differential
Stapel Likert
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
0
.

3

A

C
l
a
s
s
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

N
o
n

C
o
m
p
a
r
a
t
i
v
e

R
a
t
i
n
g

S
c
a
l
e
s
Classifying Noncomparative Scaling Techniques
Continuous scale
Non comparative scale

How would you rate Marketing Research to
other courses this term

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The worst
The Best
X X
Method of Summated Ratings:
The Likert Scale
Extremely popular means for measuring
attitudes.
Respondents indicate their own attitudes by
checking how strongly they agree/disagree
with statements.
Response alternatives:
strongly agree, agree, uncertain,
disagree, and strongly disagree.
Generally use either a 5- or 7-point scale
Itemised Rating Scales
Likert scale
Strongly
agree
disagree Neither
agree nor
disagree
agree Strongly
agree
Market research is the most
interesting subject known to
man
1 2 3 4 5
The Likert scale

Itemised Rating Scales

Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree


Agree Strongly
Agree Moderately
Agree Slightly
Disagree Slightly
Disagree
Moderately
Disagree Strongly


Agree
Disagree


Agree
Undecided
Disagree


Agree Very Strongly
Agree Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Disagree Strongly
Disagree Very
Strongly


Yes
No


Completely
Agree
Mostly Agree
Slightly Agree
Slightly
Disagree
Mostly Disagree
Completely
Disagree


Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Tend to
Disagree
Tend to Agree
Agree
Agree Strongly

AGREEMENT


Very
Frequently
Frequently
Occasionally
Rarely
Very Rarely
Never


Always
Very
Frequently
Occasionally
Rarely
Very Rarely
Never


Always
Usually
About Half the
Time
Seldom
Never


Almost Always
To a Considerable
Degree
Occasionally
Seldom


A Great Deal
Much
Somewhat
Little
Never


Often
Sometimes
Seldom
Never


Always
Very Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never

FREQUENCY

Very Important
Important
Moderately Important
Of Little Importance
Unimportant



Very Important
Moderately Important
Unimportant


Very Good
Good
Barely Acceptable
Poor
Very Poor


Extremely Poor
Below Average
Average
Above Average
Excellent


Good
Fair
Poor

IMPORTANCE

QUALITY


Like Me
Unlike Me


To a Great Extent
Somewhat
Very Little
Not at All


True
False


Definitely
Very Probably
Probably
Possibly
Probably Not
Very Probably Not


Almost Always True
Usually True
Often True
Occasionally True
Sometimes But Infrequently True
Usually Not True
Almost Never True


True of Myself
Mostly True of Myself
About Halfway True of Myself
Slightly True Of Myself
Not at All True of Myself

LIKELIHOOD

Semantic Differential Scales
A series of numbered (usually seven-point)
bipolar rating scales.
Bipolar adjectives (for example, good
and bad), anchor both ends (or poles) of
the scale.
A weight is assigned to each position on the
rating scale.
Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or
+3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.

Semantic Differential Scales for
Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis
Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm
Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull
Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex
Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active
Non-Comparative Scales
Modern Store
Low prices
Unfriendly staff
Narrow product range
Sophisticated customers
Old- fashioned store
High prices
Friendly staff
Wide product range
Unsophisticated customers
Semantic Differential Scale
Here are a number of statements that could be used to describe
K-Mart. For each statement tick ( X ) the box that best
describes your feelings about K-Mart.
Semantic Differential Scale -
Snake Diagram
Modern Store
Low prices
Friendly staff
Wide product range
Sophisticated customers
Old- fashioned store
High prices
Unfriendly staff
Narrow product range
Unsophisticated customers
X
X
X
X
X
Key :
Sears
X
K-Mart
Stapel Scales
Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a
single adjective as a substitute for the
semantic differential when it is difficult to
create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel
scale, as well as the results, are very similar
to those for a semantic differential.
However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier
to conduct and administer.
A Stapel Scale
for Measuring a Stores Image
Department
Store Name
+3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3
The following questions concern your ratings of several suppliers that
provide products for use in your store.
Staple Scale
XYZ
Poor Product
Selection
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Costly Products -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Fast Service -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
High Quality
Products
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Innovative -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Graphic Rating Scales
A graphic rating scale presents respondents
with a graphic continuum.
Graphic Rating Scale Stressing
Pictorial Visual Communications
3 2 1
Very Very
Good Poor
44
Magnitude Scaling
Attempts to measure constructs along a
numerical, ratio level scale
Respondent is given an item with a pre-
assigned numerical value attached to it to
establish a norm
The respondent is asked to rate other items with
numerical values as a proportion of the norm
Very powerful if reliability is established
45
Thurston Scales
Thurston Scales
Items are formed
Panel of experts assigns values from 1 to 11 to
each item
Mean or median scores are calculated for each
item
Select statements evenly spread across the scale
46
Thurston Scales
Example:
Please check the item that best describes your
level of willingness to try new tasks
I seldom feel willing to take on new tasks (1.7)
I will occasionally try new tasks (3.6)
I look forward to new tasks (6.9)
I am excited to try new tasks (9.8)
47
Guttman Scales
Also known as Scalograms
Both the respondents and items are ranked
Cutting points are determined (Goodenough-
Edwards technique)
Coefficient of Reproducibility (CReg) - a
measure of goodness of fit between the
observed and predicted ideal response
patterns
Keep items with CReg of 0.90 or higher

Some Basic Considerations
When Selecting a Scale
Selecting a Rating, Ranking,
Sorting, or Purchase Intent
Scale
Balanced Versus Non-
balanced Alternatives
Number of Categories
Odd or Even Number of
Scale Categories
Forced Versus Non-forced
Choice
Odd
Strongly Agree _____
Agree _____
Neutral _____
Disagree _____
Strongly disagree
_____
Even
Strongly Agree_____

Agree _____
Disagree _____
Strongly disagree___
Odd versus even
if neutral responses likely, use odd number
Balanced vs. Unbalanced
Balanced
Very good ______
Good ______
Fair ______
Poor ______
Very Poor ______
Unbalanced
Excellent ______
Very Good ______
Good ______
Fair ______
Poor ______
Balanced and Unbalanced Scales
Balanced Scale Unbalanced Scale
J OVAN MUSK FOR MEN I S J OVAN MUSK FOR MEN I S
Extremely good
Very good
Good
Bad
Very bad
Extremely bad
Extremely good
Very good
Somewhat Good
Good
Bad
Very bad
Forced vs. Unforced
Forced
Extremely Reliable ___
Very Reliable ___
Somewhat Reliable ___
Somewhat Unreliable ___
Very Unreliable ___
Extremely Unreliable ___
Unforced
Extremely Reliable ___
Very Reliable ___
Somewhat Reliable ___
Somewhat Unreliable ___
Very Unreliable ___
Extremely Unreliable ___
Dont know ___
Labeled vs. End Anchored
Labeled
Excellent _____
Very Good _____
Fair _____
Poor _____
Very Poor _____
End Anchored
Excellent _____
_____
_____
_____
Poor _____

Labeled
Excellent _____
Very Good _____
Fair _____
Poor _____
Very Poor _____
Excellent _____


Very Good_____
Fair _____
Poor _____

Very Poor _____
Intervals May Not Reflect the Semantic
Meaning of the Adjectives
Intervals Are
Not Equal
Intervals Are
Not Equal
Number of Scale Points
5 Point
Excellent _____
_____
_____
_____
Poor _____
10 Point
Excellent _____
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________

Poor
Scale Evaluation
SCALE
EVALUATION
Reliability
Validity
Test-Retest
Internal
Consistency
Alternative
Forms
Construct
Criterion
Content
Figure 10.6 Scale
Evaluation
Convergent
Validity
Discriminant
Validity
Nomological
Validity
Reliability and Validity
Neither Reliable
Nor Valid
Reliable But
Not Valid
Reliable
And Valid