Dr.

ISMAYIL
Assistant Professor
Department of Physics
Manipal Institute of Technology
RADIATION PHYSICS
(Open Elective for B.E - VI Semester)
(PHY 322)
1
Dr. ISMAYIL
Assistant Professor
Department of Physics
Manipal Institute of Technology
Manipal University

Academic Block-2 Basement,
Near AC Seminar Hall

E-mail: ismayil.mit@manipal.edu
Mobile Number: 98454 97546


2
Syllabus
5
Radiation Detectors and
Instrumentation [16 hours]
Semiconductors diodes
JFET
MOSFET
Integrated Circuits
OPAMP and their characteristics
Differential Amplifier
Operational amplifier systems
Pulse Amplifiers.

Ref:
Robert L Boylestad, Electronic Devices and Circuit theory
Radiation Detection and Measurement Glenn F Knoll
Measurement and Detection of radiation - Nicholas
Tsoulfanidis
Proportional counters
GM counters
Scintillation detectors
Semiconductor detectors
Thermo luminescent
Dosimeters
Radiation spectroscopy with
scintillators
Gamma spectroscopy
Multichannel pulse analyzer
Slow neutron detection
methods
Reactor instrumentation
Principles of radiation detection
and measurements
Gas filled detectors
Ionization chambers
Theory and design
Gas multiplication
6
Radiation Detectors and Instrumentation
Semiconductors diodes :
pn-junction is formed when a
p-type semiconductor is joined
to an n-type semiconductor.
A pn-junction has three distinct
regions: a p-region, an n-region,
and a depletion region at the
junction [Figure (a)].
The depletion region has no
movable charges (conduction
electrons and holes) because the
conduction electrons on the n-side
have crossed the junction due to
diffusion and neutralized the
holes on the p-side.



Because of the fixed ion cores in the depletion region, an
electric field exists [Figure (b)], due to which there is a
potential difference V
o
across the
junction [Figure (c)].

In the forward bias, the
p-side of the junction is made
positive with respect to the n-
side, by application of an
external voltage V. Then the
internal potential difference V
o

across the junction decreases.
This gives rise to a current I
which increases exponentially
with the increase in forward
bias V.

CHARACTERISTIC
CURVE OF A pn-
JUNCTION
REVERSE
BIAS
FORWARD
BIAS
FORWARD BIAS :
REVERSE BIAS :
9
In the reverse bias, the p-side of the junction is made
negative with respect to the n-side, by application of a
negative voltage V. Then the internal potential difference
V
o
across the junction increases. This gives rise to a
reverse current that quickly reaches a saturation value I
o

(reverse saturation current).

The current in an ideal diode under the biasing voltage V
at temperature T is





This is known as diode-current equation.
Problem 3.1: The current in a diode under forward bias of
100 mV is 200 mA at a temperature of 300 K. What is the
current in the diode if it is under reverse bias of 100 mV ?
Solution:

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) :
The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device
consisting of either two n-type and one p-type layers of
material (npn transistor) OR two p-type and one n-type
layers of material (pnp transistor).

There are three terminal namely Emitter, Base and
Collector.

The emitter layer is heavily doped, the base lightly doped,
and the collector also lightly doped. The outer layers have
widths much greater than the sandwiched p-type or n-type
material.

Bipolar junction transistors are so named because their
operation involves both electrons and holes.
13
14
In 1947 three American scientists named William
Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs,
announced the creation of the first transistor.
The name transistor is a combination of the words
transfer and resistor - a transfer resistor - a transistor.
When it was announced the name was explained;
"because it is a resistor or semiconductor device which
can amplify electrical signals as they are transferred
through it from input to output terminals."
This, the very first transistor was called a point-contact
transistor.
Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain received the Nobel Prize
in Physics 1956 "for their researches on semiconductors
and their discovery of the transistor effect."
Input Characteristics Output Characteristics
16
BJT is a current-controlled device
Field-Effect Transistors (FET) :
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a three-terminal device
used for a variety of applications that match, to a large
extent, those of the Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT).
The primary difference between the two types of
transistors is the fact that the BJT is a current-controlled
device, while the FET is a voltage-controlled device.
Just as there are npn and pnp bipolar transistors, there are
n-channel and p-channel field-effect transistors.
The BJT is a bipolar device i.e., the conduction level is a
function of two charge carriers, electrons and holes.
The FET is a unipolar device depending solely on either
electron (n-channel) or hole (p-channel) conduction.
18
Current Controlled vs Voltage Controlled Devices





Two types of FETs are:
Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
(MOSFET)
The MOSFET transistor has become one of the most
important devices used in the design and construction of
integrated circuits for digital computers.
Its thermal stability and other general characteristics
make it extremely popular in computer circuit design.
Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)
JFET is a three-terminal device
with one terminal capable of
controlling the current between
the other two.
Note that the major part of the
structure is the n-type material
that forms the channel between
the embedded layers of p-type
material.
BJT FET
Emitter Source
Base Gate
Collector Drain
The top of the n-type channel is
connected through an ohmic contact
to a terminal referred to as the drain
(D), while the lower end of the same
material is connected through an
ohmic contact to a terminal referred
to as the source (S).
The two p-type materials are
connected together and to the gate
(G) terminal.
In principle the drain and source are
connected to the ends of the n-type
channel and the gate to the two
layers of p-type material.
22
In the absence of any applied
potentials the JFET has two p-n
junctions under no-bias
conditions.
The result is a depletion region
at each junction as shown in Fig.
that resembles the same region
of a diode under no-bias
conditions.
A depletion region is that region
void of free carriers and
therefore unable to support
conduction through the region.
A positive voltage V
DS
has been
applied across the channel.
Gate has been connected directly
to the source to establish the
condition V
GS
= 0 volt.

The instant voltage V
DS
is
increased, the electrons will be
drawn to the drain terminal,
establishing the conventional
current I
D
with the defined
direction.
V
GS
= 0, V
DS
= + ve
BJT FET
Emitter Source
Base Gate
Collector Drain
Water analogy for the JFET control
mechanism:
The source of water pressure can be
likened to the applied voltage from
drain to source that will establish a
flow of water (electrons) from the
tap (source).
The gate, through an applied
signal (potential), controls the flow
of water (charge) to the drain.
The drain and source terminals are
at opposite ends of the n-channel as
introduced in Fig. because the
terminology is defined for electron
flow.
The path of charge flow clearly
reveals that the drain and
source currents are equivalent
(I
D
= I
S
).

The flow of charge is limited by
the resistance of the n-channel
between drain and source.
27
The nonconductive depletion region becomes thicker with increased reverse bias.
(Note: The two gate regions of each FET are connected to each other.)
JFET is a voltage controlled device.
N-Channel JFET Operation
7/18/2014 28




JFET Symbol :
29




JFET Characteristics
As the voltage V
DS
is increased from 0 to a few volts, the current will
increase as determined by Ohms law and the plot of I
D
versus V
DS

will appear as shown below.
I
DSS
is the maximum drain current for a JFET
30
The relative straightness of the plot reveals that for the
region of low values of V
DS
, the resistance is essentially
constant.

As V
DS
increases the depletion region will widen, causing a
noticeable reduction in the channel width.

The reduced path of conduction causes the resistance to
increase and the curve in the graph to occur.

The more horizontal the curve, the higher the resistance,
suggesting that the resistance is approaching infinite
ohms in the horizontal region.
31
If V
GS
is increased to a level
where it appears that the
two depletion regions would
touch, a condition referred
to as pinch-off will result.

At the pinch-off point:
Any further increase in V
GS
does not produce any increase in I
D
.
V
GS
at pinch-off is denoted as V
p
.
32




As V
GS
becomes more negative:
the JFET will pinch-off at a lower voltage (V
p
).
I
D
decreases (I
D
< I
DSS
) even though V
DS
is increased.
Eventually I
D
will reach 0A. V
GS
at this point is called V
p
or V
GS(off)
.
Also note that at high levels of V
DS
the JFET reaches a breakdown
situation. I
D
will increase uncontrollably if V
DS
> V
DSmax
.
33
FET as a Voltage-Controlled Resistor





The region to the left of the pinch-off point is called the ohmic region.
The JFET can be used as a variable resistor, where V
GS
controls the
drain-source resistance (r
d
).
As V
GS
becomes more negative, the resistance (r
d
) increases.

34



Transfer (Transconductance) Curve
From this graph it is easy to determine the value of I
D
for a given value of V
GS.

It is also possible to determine I
DSS
and V
P
by looking at the knee where V
GS
is 0
Shockleys equation

35




p-Channel JFET:
p-Channel JFET operates in a similar manner as the n-channel JFET
except the voltage polarities and current directions are reversed
36




P-Channel JFET Characteristics
As V
GS
increases more positively,
the depletion zone increases
I
D
decreases (I
D
< I
DSS
)
eventually I
D
= 0A

Also note that at high levels of V
DS
the JFET reaches a breakdown
situation. I
D
increases uncontrollably if V
DS
> V
DSmax
.
37
JFET versus BJT
38
Problem 3.2 : Sketch the transfer curve for a n-channel JFET
defined by I
DSS
= 12 mA and V
P
= -6 V.

Solution : Two plot points are defined by







At V
GS
= V
P
/2 = -6/2 =- 3 V
the drain current will be determined by
I
D
= I
DSS
/4 = 12 /4 = 3 mA

At I
D
=I
DSS
/2 = 12/2 = 6 mA the gate-to-
source voltage is determined by
V
GS
= 0.3V
P
= 0.3 -6 = - 1.8 V

Using these four points the
complete transfer curve can be plotted.

39
Problem 3.3: Sketch the transfer curve for a p-channel JFET
with I
DSS
= 4 mA and V
P
= 3 V.

Solution:
At V
GS
= V
P
/2 = 3/2 = 1.5 V,
I
D
= I
DSS
/4 = 4/4 = 1 mA.

At I
D
= I
DSS
/2 = 4 /2 = 2 mA,
V
GS
= 0.3VP = 0.33 = 0.9 V.

Using these points the
complete transfer curve
can be plotted.

40
MOSFET:

A MOSFET is Metal - Oxide - Semiconductor Field - Effect
Transistor.

There are two types of MOSFETs based on their basic
mode of operation, namely
a) Depletion type
b) Enhancement type

Depletion-type MOSFET (D-MOSFET) :

There are three metal connections to the MOSFET : source,
drain, and gate. The source and drain are connected to n-
type semiconductor regions. These regions are connected by a
narrow channel of n-type material [n-CHANNEL].
The source and drain regions and the n-channel are
embedded in a p-type substrate material.
42
43
This forms a depletion region along the bottom of the n-
channel. The gate is separated from the n-channel by a
layer of insulating silicon dioxide. Thus it does not make
electrical contact with the rest of the semiconducting
material.
If a voltage V
SD
is applied across the source and drain
[Figure b], the electrons flow through the upper region
of the n-channel, because the lower part
of the n-channel is depleted of charge
carriers.
Now, if a second voltage V
SG
is
applied across the source and gate with
the positive potential on the gate [Figure
c], the depletion region in the n-channel
become narrower and hence the source-
drain current increases.
45
There is no direct electrical connection between the gate terminal
and the channel of a MOSFET.
It is the insulating layer of SiO
2
in the MOSFET construction that
accounts for the very desirable high input impedance of the device.
Hence its a suitable device for amplification circuits.
46
Drain and transfer characteristics for an n-channel
depletion-type MOSFET
If a varying voltage is applied to the gate of the
MOSFET, the source-drain current also varies.

A small variation in gate voltage V
SG
results in a
large variation in source-drain current, and a
correspondingly large output-voltage across the
resistor. Therefore, the MOSFET acts as a voltage
amplifier.

If a negative potential is applied to the gate, the n-
channel decreases in size when V
SG
increases. This
reduces the source-drain current and stops the
current when V
SG
is large. Thus MOSFET can be
used as on-off switch by changing the polarity of
V
SG
.
48
D-MOSFET Symbol :
49
Problem 3.4: Sketch the transfer characteristics for an
n-channel depletion-type MOSFET with I
DSS
= 10 mA and
V
P
= - 4 V.
Solution :






At V
GS
= +1 Volt,

50
Enhancement-type MOSFET (E-MOSFET) :






There is NO Channel !
51
52
53
Both V
DS
and V
GS
have been set at some positive voltage
greater than 0 V, establishing the drain and gate at a
positive potential with respect to the source.
The positive potential at the gate will pressure the holes
(since like charges repel) in the p-substrate along the
edge of the SiO
2
layer to leave the area and enter deeper
regions of the p-substrate.
The result is a depletion region near the SiO
2
insulating
layer void of holes.
As V
GS
increases in magnitude, the concentration of
electrons near the SiO
2
surface increases until eventually
the induced n-type region can support a measurable flow
between drain and source.
54
55
E-MOSFET Symbol :
56




Summary Table
JFET D-MOSFET E-MOSFET
Integrated Circuits:

An integrated circuit (IC) is a collection of interconnected
transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors fabricated on a
single piece of silicon known as a chip.
ICs were invented partly to solve the interconnection
problem spawned by the transistor. In addition to solving
the interconnection problem, ICs possess the advantages of
miniaturization and fast response.
58
59
Operational Amplifier (OPAMP)
An operational amplifier (op-amp), is a very high gain
differential amplifier with high input impedance and low
output impedance.

Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide
voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity),
oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of
instrumentation circuits.

An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier
stages (made up of transistors, capacitors and resistors) to
achieve a very high voltage gain.
60
Circuit layout of op-amp type 741
The op-amp is a chip, a small black box with 8 connectors or pins (only 5 are usually used).
61
Pin Configuration Symbol
62
Op-amp is equivalent to an electronic circuit consist of high
input resistor, a voltage source and a low output resistor.
Op-amp Equivalent
Op-Amp Input and Output
The op-amp has two inputs, an inverting input (-) and a non-
inverting input (+), and one output.

The output goes positive when the non-inverting input (+) goes
more positive than the inverting (-) input, and vice versa.

The symbols + and do not mean that you have to keep one
positive with respect to the other; they tell you the relative
phase of the output.
Powering the Op-Amp
Since op-amps are used as amplifiers, they need an
external source of (constant DC) power.

Typically, this source will supply +15V at +V and -15V at -V.
The op-amp will give output voltage range of somewhat
less because of internal losses.

Op-Amp Intrinsic Gain
Amplifiers increase the magnitude of a signal by
multiplier called a gain A.
The internal gain of an op-amp is very high. The exact
gain is often unpredictable.
This gain is called open-loop gain or intrinsic gain.


The output of the op-amp is this gain multiplied by the
input.


5 6
out
open loop
in
V
A 10 10
V
= ~
( )
id out
V A V V A V = =
2 1
Gain A ~ 2,00,000 for Op-amp IC 741
V
id
= V
1
-V
2
is the input difference
Op-Amp Saturation
The huge gain causes the output to change
dramatically when (V
1
-V
2
) changes sign.
However, the op-amp output is limited by the voltage
that you provide to it.
When the op-amp is at the maximum or minimum
extreme, it is said to be saturated.
saturation negative V V then V V if
saturation positive V V then V V if
V V V
out
out
out
~ <
+ ~ >
+ s s
2 1
2 1
Feedback
Negative Feedback
As information is fed back, the output becomes more stable.
Output tends to stay in the linear range. The linear range is
when V
out
=A(V
1
-V
2
).

Positive Feedback
As information is fed back, the output destabilizes. The op-
amp tends to saturate.
Op-Amp Circuits
Op-Amps circuits can perform mathematical
operations on input signals:
addition and subtraction
multiplication and division
differentiation and integration

Other common uses include:
Active filters
Active controllers
Analog-digital interfacing

g
f
in
g
f
out
R
R
A V
R
R
V + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = 1 1
The Non-Inverting Amplifier
in
f
in
in
f
out
R
R
A V
R
R
V = =
The Inverting Amplifier
71
Questions:
1. Explain the construction and working of semi -
conductor diodes.
2. Explain the characteristics of BJT.
3. What are the differences between BJT and FET ?
4. Discuss the fabrication, working and characteristics of
JFET.
5. Discuss the fabrication, working and characteristics of
D-MOSFET.
6. What are the differences between D-MOSFET and E-
MOSFET ?
7. Write a note on OPAMP.

72
Subject Code : PHY 322
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