Research Methodology

Prof. Pravin Chavan

Introduction
Meaning of Research:
Research in common words refers to a search for knowledge.
It is actually a voyage of discovery
Research as a scientific and systematic search
for pertinent information on a specific topic.

A careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.







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Introduction
Definition of Research:

According to Clifford Woody research comprises
defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and, reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing
the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.






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TYPES OF RESEARCH

Descriptive vs. Analytical.
Applied vs. Fundamental.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative.
Conceptual vs. Empirical.
Some Other Types of Research



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TYPES OF RESEARCH

Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive Research (Ex post facto research )
The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the
state of affairs as it exists at present.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has
no control over the variables;
For ex. frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods.

Analytical Research
The researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material
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TYPES OF RESEARCH

Applied vs. Fundamental Research

Applied Research
Aims to finding a solution for an immediate problem facing by
society or an industrial/business organization.


Fundamental Research
research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory.

Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or
basic research.

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
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TYPES OF RESEARCH

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research:
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount.

It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.

Fundamental Research
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon.
Motivation Research Attitude or opinion is a type of
qualitative research.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH

Conceptual vs. Empirical:
Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical Research
Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, based on observation or experiment.
In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself
with a working hypothesis proceed on the research considering
these hypothesis.
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TYPES OF RESEARCH

Some Other Types of Research:

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above
stated approaches,

Exploratory or formalized.
The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing.

Whereas formalized research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be
tested.

Field-setting research or laboratory Research /
simulation research,
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Research Process
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Define
Research
Problem
Review concepts
and theories
Review previous
research finding
Formulate
hypotheses
Design research
(including
sample design)
Collect data
(Execution)
Analyze data
(Test hypotheses
F if any)
Interpret
and report
Research Process
1. Formulating the research problem:

There are two types of research problems-
Which relate to states of nature
Those which relate to relationships between variables

Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and
then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved.

Steps involved in formulating the research problem-
Understanding the problem thoroughly,
Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view.
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Research Process

2. Extensive literature survey:
Two types of literature can be surveyed
Review concepts and theories
Review previous research finding

For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies, conference
proceedings, government reports, books can be used.
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Research Process
3. Formulate hypotheses

Means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved or
disproved.

But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he
intends to resolve.

How does one go about developing working hypotheses-
After extensive literature survey
Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem
Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale
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Research Process
4. Preparing the research design:
It is a conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted.

A good research design is that which facilitate collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure, effort, and time.

Research design depends on the type of the research.

Research design, involves following consideration.
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
(iii) the time available for research
(iv) the cost factor relating to research,
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Research Process
5. Determining sample design:
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a universe or population.
Sample means selection of only a few items from the universe
for our study purposes.
The way of selecting the sample is known as sample design.
Types of sample design.
(i) Deliberate sampling (also known as purposive or non-probability)- it
includes convenience and judgment sampling.
(ii) Simple random sampling
(iii) Systematic sampling
(iv) Stratified sampling:
(v) Quota sampling:
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling
(vii) Multi-stage sampling:
(viii) Sequential sampling:
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Research Process
Types of sample design.

(i) Deliberate sampling (also known as purposive or non-
probability)-

This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection
of particular units from the universe for the study.

It includes two types of Sampling
Convenience sampling
Judgment sampling
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Research Process
Types of sample design.
(ii) Simple random sampling:

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling.

In this method each and every item in the population has an
equal chance of inclusion in the sample.

iii) Systematic sampling:
In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select
every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a
street and so on.

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Research Process
Types of sample design.
(iv) Stratified sampling:
If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling
technique is applied

In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of no
overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are
selected from each stratum.

If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple
random sampling the entire procedure is called as stratified
random sampling.
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Research Process
Types of sample design.

(v) Quota sampling:

If the cost of taking random sample from each strata is so
expensive then the quota is used.

In this method interviewers are simply given quota to be filled
from different strata.

The actual selection of items for sample being left to the
interviewers judgment. So it is also called as judgment
sampling.
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Research Process
Types of sample design.

(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling:
Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then
selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual
elements for inclusion in the sample.

Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling & used when
the area under study is large.
In this type of sampling total area is divided into a small non
overlapping clusters then a number of these smaller areas are
randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are
included in the sample.
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Research Process

Types of sample design.

(vii) Multi-stage sampling:

This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.

Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large
primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns
and finally certain families within towns.
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Research Process
Types of sample design.
(viii) Sequential sampling:
This is somewhat a complex sample design.

Size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined
according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses.

This design is usually adopted in the in the context of statistical
quality control.

In practice, several of the methods of sampling described
above may well be used in the same study
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Research Process

6. Collecting the data:

Two types of data can be collected for the study

Primary Data

Secondary Data

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Research Process
6. Collecting the data:
Primary data
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through
survey.

Experiment- If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes
some quantitative measurements, or the data with the help of which
he examines hypothesis.

In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of
the following ways:
(i) By observation
(ii) Through personal interview:
(iii) Through telephone interviews:
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires:
(v) Through schedules:
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Research Process
7. Execution of the project:

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process.

If the survey is to be conducted by means of questionnaire, data
can be readily machine processed.

If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training
of the interviewers.

Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and
efficiently.

If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable
methods should be designed to tackle this problem.
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Research Process
8. Analysis of data:

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as coding, editing, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences.

Coding operation means assigning symbols to the collected
data.

Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for
coding.

Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the
classified data are put in the form of tables.

Analysis work after tabulation of data with the help of sevral
statastical tools.
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Research Process
9. Hypothesis-testing:

After analyzing the data researcher can test the hypothesis.

Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose.

Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis
or in rejecting it.
If researcher has stated any hypothesis the generalization
statement of the research finding will stated as hypothesis and
helpful for the further research testing in the subsequent
research.

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Research Process

10. Generalizations and interpretation:

After testing of hypothesis researcher is able to arrive at
generalization.

The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations.

If the researcher had no stated any hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It
is known as interpretation.

The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new
questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
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Research Process

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report.

While writing the report following point need to be consider

1) The layout of the report.

2) Language of the report should be written in a concise and
objective style in simple language. avoiding vague
expressions such as it seems, there may be, and
the like.

3) Charts and illustrations in the main report should
be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.
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Research Process

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report.

While writing the report following point need to be consider

1) .The layout of the report should be as follows:
(A) The preliminary pages
(B) The main text,
(C) The end matter.


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Research Process

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

(A). The preliminary pages

In its preliminary pages report should carry the pages of -Title of
the research followed by acknowledgements and foreword.

There should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables
and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
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Research Process

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

(B).The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction:
(b) Summary of findings
(c) Main report:
(d) Conclusion:

(a) Introduction: It should contain objective of the research,
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of
the study and limitations of the study.

(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a
statement of findings and recommendations.

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Research Process

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

(B).The main text of the report

(C)Main report: The main body of the report should be presented
in logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable
sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher
should again put down the results of his research clearly and
precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
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Research Process

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

(C).End of the report

At the end of the report appendices should be enlisted.

Bibliography, list of books, journals, reports, consulted if any
should also be given in the end.

Index should also be given specially in a published research
report.
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Research Process
Criteria of Good Research
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined.
2. The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned
3. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate, methods
of analysis used should be appropriate.
4. Conclusions should be confined to the data of the research.
5. The report of the researcher should follow the procedural
design and of the report.
6. Integrity of the researcher is a prerequisite for the good
research.

More precisely Good research is systematic, logical, empirical,
replicable.


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Research Design
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Research Design
Meaning of Research Design
The research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted.

Research Design answer the following question:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
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Research Design
Features of a good design
A good design is which is flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical.

Minimizes bias and maximizes reliability of the data.

The design which gives the smallest experimental error is
supposed to be the best design.

Maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering
many different aspects of a problem.

Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or
objective of the research problem. One single design cannot serve
the purpose of all types of research problems.
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Research Design

Different Types of Research Design

(1) Research design in case of exploratory research studies.

(2) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies.

(3) Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research
studies.
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Research Design
Different Types of Research Design
(1) Research design in case of exploratory research studies.
The main purpose of such studies is to formulate a problem for
more precise investigation or developing the working
hypotheses.

Thus such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under
study.

The following three methods can be used:
(a) The survey of concerning literature.
(b) The experience survey and
(c) The analysis of insight-stimulating examples.
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Research Design
Different Types of Research Design
(2) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies.
Descriptive study describes the characteristics of a particular
individual, or a group,

Diagnostic research studies frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.

For these study researcher define clearly, what he wants to
measure, the methods for measuring and clear cut definition of
population he wants to study.

The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and
follow already defined procedure.
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Research Design
Different Types of Research Design
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research
studies (Experimental studies):

In these study researcher tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables.

Such studies require procedures that will reduce bias and
increase reliability, and also permit drawing inferences about
causality.

For such research design of experiments is used.

Professor R.A. Fishers name is associated with experimental
designs.
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Research Design
Different Types of Research Design
Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies
(Experimental studies):

Basic Principles Of Experimental Designs

(1) The Principle of Replication;

(2) The Principle of Randomization; and

(3) Principle of Local Control.



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Research
Sampling Design
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Sampling Design
Census And Sample Survey
All items in any field of study is known as Universe or
Population.

If we include entire population in the study then it is known as
a census inquiry. However it is not possible to includes every
item in the study.

The accurate results can be obtain by studying only a part of
total population.

To selected few representative respondents from the
population is technically called a sample and the selection
process is called sampling technique & survey so conducted
is known as sample survey.
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Sampling Design
Steps in sample design

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay
attention to the following points

(i) Type of universe
(ii) Sampling unit
(iii) Source list:
(iv) Size of sample:
(v) Parameters of interest
(vi) Budgetary constraint
(vii) Sampling procedure
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Sampling Design
Steps in sample design

(i) Type of universe
1. A universe may be finite or infinite.

(ii) Sampling unit
1. Sampling unit may be a geographical such as state,
district, village, etc. or
2. Construction unit such as house, flat, etc.
3. It may be a social unit such as family, club, school,
etc.
4. It may be an individual
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Sampling Design
Steps in sample design
(iii) Source list:
1. It is also known as sampling frame from which sample
is to be drawn.
2. It contains the names of all items of a universe.
3. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable
and appropriate.
4. A list must be a representative of the population as
possible.
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Sampling Design
Steps in sample design
(iv) Size of sample

This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe.

The size of sample should be optimum.

An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of
efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.

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Sampling Design
Steps in sample design
(v) Parameters of interest:

Many a times total population has different subgroup having
different characteristics of their population.

While conducting a research we have to give select
representative from this different subgroup in our total
sample unit.

While building a sample design enough care need to be taken
so that representative from each subgroup can be selected in
the sample size.
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Sampling Design
Steps in sample design

(vi) Budgetary constraint:

Available budget and budgetary constraint need to be
consider while building the sample design.


Sampling procedure
Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will
use .
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Sampling Design
Different types of sample designs
Sample designs are based on two factor
1. The representation basis and
2. The element selection technique.

The representation basis
The sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-
probability sampling.

The element selection technique.
The sample may be either unrestricted or restricted
Unrestricted sample:- sample element is drawn
individually from the population.
Restricted sampling:- all other forms of sampling.
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Sampling Design

Different types of sample designs

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Element Selection
Technique
Representation Basis

Unrestricted
sampling
Probability sampling
Non Probability
Sampling
Simple random
sampling
convenience
sampling
Restricted Sampling
Complex random
sampling (Cluster
Sampling, Systematic
Sampling, Stratified
Sampling etc.)
Purposive
sampling (such as
quota sampling,
judgment
sampling)
Sampling Design
Characteristics of a good sample design

(a) Sample design must be a truly representative sample.

(b) Sample design must be such that it give a small sampling
error.

(c) Sample design must be economical.

(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.

(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study
can be applied, in general way.
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Measurement
&
scaling techniques
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Measurement & Scaling
By measurement we mean the process of assigning
numbers to objects or observations.

Properties like weight, height, length etc., can be
measured directly with some standard unit of
measurement etc.

However it is difficult to measure properties like
motivation attitude, ability to stand, stress etc.

Researcher has to create various measuring technique to
measure such variable in the social study.
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Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
Four Basic Scales of Measurement
Measurement & Scaling
Measurement & Scaling
(a) Nominal scale:
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number or
symbols to events in order to label them.

For ex. Numbers on the cricket players jersey .

These numbers does not have any ordered scale.

These numbers are not useful to conduct any further
statistical calculations..

Yet nominal scales are still very useful for classifying major
sub-groups of the population.
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Measurement & Scaling
(a) Nominal scale Examples:

If one describes respondents in a survey according to
their occupation such as banker, doctor, computer
programmer one has used a nominal scale.

If one use question as check all the brands you would
consider purchasing

I. Sony
II. Videocon
III. Samsung
IV. L.G


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Measurement & Scaling

(b) Ordinal scale
The ordinal scale places events in order.

Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently
used in research relating to qualitative phenomena.

A students rank in his graduation class involves the use
of an ordinal scale.

The appropriate measure of central tendency is the
median.
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Measurement & Scaling
(b) Ordinal scale
For example is one use question such as please rank each
brand in terms of your preference such as 1 represent your
first choice, and 2 represent your second choice, and so
on.
Sony
Videocon
Samsung
L.G
B.P.L
Phillips

The ordinal scale places events in order.

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Measurement & Scaling
(c) Interval scale:

Interval scales are those in which the distance between
each variable is known.

It demonstrates absolute differences between each
scale point.

The distance is normally defined as one scale unit.

The location of zero point is not fixed, since zero
does not denote the absence of the attribute.

Both zero point and units of measurement are
arbitrary

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Measurement & Scaling

(c) Interval scale Examples:

If you were asked to evaluate a stores sales people by
selecting a single designation from the list of

Extremely friendly
Very friendly
Somewhat friendly
Somewhat unfriendly
Very unfriendly
Extremely unfriendly
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Measurement & Scaling
(c) Interval scale Examples:
Please rate each brand in terms of its overall
performance

Brand ________________
Very poor Very good

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mont blanc

Parker

Cross
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Measurement & Scaling
(d)Ratio Scale:

Ratio scales are the ones in which true zero origin
exists such as actual number of purchases in a certain
time period, rupees spent, miles traveled etc.

A ratio scale allows the researcher not only to identify
the absolute differences between each scale point but
also to make absolute comparisons between the
responses.
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Measurement & Scaling

(d) Ration scale Examples:
Please indicate your age in year________

Approximately how many times in the last
month have you purchased anything over Rs. 1000
in value at BigBazar?


0 1 2 3 4 5 (More specify_ _ _ _ )
66
Different Information
Facts About the Four Levels of Scales
Facts About the Four Levels of Scales (contd)
Measurement & Scaling
Sources of Error in Measurement
(a) Respondent
respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative
feelings
he may have very little knowledge but may not admit
his ignorance.
fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of
the respondent

(b) Situation
Situational factors such as presence of another person, or
is respondent feels anonymity is not assured it will also
affect on the response.
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Measurement & Scaling
Sources of Error in Measurement
(c) Measurer
Errors may also accrue in because of incorrect coding,
tabulation and/or statistical calculations at data-analysis
stage.

(d) Instrument
Error may arise because of the defective measuring
instrument. Such as use of complex words, ambiguous
meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for
replies, response choice omissions, etc.
It may also because poor sampling of the universe of items
of concern.
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Methods of Data
Collection

72
Primary Versus Secondary Data
Primary data:
Information that is developed or gathered by the
researcher specifically for the research project at hand.

Secondary data:
Information that has previously been gathered by
someone other than the researcher and/or for some
other purpose than the research project at hand.
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Primary Data
Methods of collecting Primary data:
(i) Observation method,
(ii) Interview method,
(iii) Through questionnaires,
(Iv) Through schedules, and
(v) Other methods which include
(a) Warranty cards; (b) Distributor audits;
(c) Pantry audits; (d) Consumer panels;
(e) Using mechanical devices;
(F) Through projective techniques;
(g) Depth interviews,
(h) Content analysis
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Observation methods:
Techniques in which the researcher relies on his or
her powers of observation rather than
communicating with a person in order to obtain
information

Types of observation:
Structured versus unstructured
participant and non-participant
Disguised versus undisguised
controlled and uncontrolled observation.


Primary Data
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Interview method
The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses.

Types of Interview:
(a) Personal interviews:
In this method interviewer ask question to other person
face to face. It includes:
Structured interview Vs Unstructured
Interview.
Non-directive interview. Vs Focused interview

(b) Telephonic Interview

Primary Data
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77
Through questionnaires.

Under this method the questionnaire is sent to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the questionnaire.

A points to be consider while preparing the
questionnaire.
1. General form:
2. Question sequence:
3. Question formulation and wording:

Primary Data
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Essentials of a good questionnaire:
Questionnaire should be short and simple
Size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum
Logical sequence moving.
Personal questions should be left to the end.
Technical terms, should be avoided.
Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers),
Multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
There should be some control questions
Primary Data
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Collection of data through schedules.


In the case of schedules the (proforma containing a set
of questions) data will be collected by enumerators
who are specially appointed for the purpose.
Primary Data
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Difference between questionnaires and schedules
The questionnaire is sent through mail and schedule
is filled out by the research worker, or the enumerator.
Collect of data through questionnaire is relatively
economical against schedule.
Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire
against schedules.
Personal contact is generally not possible in case of
the questionnaire, in schedules it is possible.
For questionnaire respondent should be literate in
case of schedules illiterate can also be the respondent.
Primary Data
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Some other methods of data Collections.
1. Warranty cards:
2. Distributor or store audits:
3. Pantry audits:
4. Consumer panels
5. Use of mechanical devices
6. Projective techniques:
(i) Word association tests (ii) Sentence completion tests:
(iii) Story completion tests (iv) Verbal projection tests:
(v) Pictorial techniques
7. Depth interviews
8. Content-analysis

Primary Data
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82

1. Use of mechanical devices: Eye Camera,
Pupilometric Camera, Psychogalvanometer, motion
picture camera, audiometer etc.
Eye Camera- is designed record the focus of the
respondents eye on the specific object or diagram.
Pupilometric Camera- record the dilation of the
pupil as a result of visual stimuli.
Psychogalvanometer- is used to record the body
excitement as a visual stimuli.
Motion picture camera- can record the movement
of body the buyer at the time of purchasing.
Audiometer is used to record the type of program
or station preferred by the people.

Primary Data
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Some other methods of data Collections.
1. Warranty cards:
2. Distributor or store audits:
3. Pantry audits:
4. Consumer panels
5. Use of mechanical devices
6. Projective techniques:
(i) Word association tests (ii) Sentence completion tests:
(iii) Story completion tests (iv) Verbal projection tests:
(v) Pictorial techniques
7. Depth interviews
8. Content-analysis

Primary Data
Secondary data

INTERNAL SOURCES-

1. Accounting records

2. Sales force reports

3. Miscellaneous reports

4. Internal experts
EXTERNAL SOURCES-
1. Computerised databases-
2. Originating sources: RBI bulletins
3. Govt. publications: Census, Central
Statistical Orgn.
4. Non govt. publication: BSE directory,
FICCI reports
5. Syndicated services: Organisations,
which collect and tabulate marketing
information on a continuous basis.

84
Processing and Analysis of Data

Prof. Pravin Chavan
sm\mr\ob
86


Processing implies editing, coding, classification,
and tabulation of collected data so they are usable to
analysis.

1. Editing a process of examining the collected raw
data to detect errors and omissions and to correct
them when possible.

2. Coding the process of assigning numbers or other
symbols to answers so that responses can be put
into a limited number of classes or categories.


Processing Data
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3. Classification- It means rearranging the large
volume data into different groups and subgroups to
get meaningful relations.


4. Tabulation mass of data need to be assembled in
some kind of concise and logical order. This
procedure is referred to as tabulation. In a broader
sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data
in columns and rows.


Processing Data
Analysis of Data

Prof. Pravin Chavan
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Analysis we mean the computation of certain measures
along with searching for patterns of relationship that
exist among the data groups.

Statastics plays important role as a tool in designing
research, analysing its data and drawing conclusions
therefrom.

Two major areas of statistics.
Descriptive statistics and
Inferential statistics.
Analysing Data
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Descriptive statistics
Statistics concern the development of certain indices
from the raw data,


Inferential statistics.
Used to generate conclusions about the populations
characteristics based on the sample data
Analysing Data
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Important Statistical Measures

1. Measure of Central Tendency
2. Measure of Dispersion
3. Measure of Relationship
4. Measure of Asymmetry (Skewness)
5. Other measure.
Analysing Data
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Important Statastical Measures
1. Measure of Centeral Tendancy

Mean: sometimes referred to as the arithmetic mean;
the average value characterizing a set of numbers

Mode: the value in a string of numbers that occurs
most often

Median: the value whose occurrence lies in the
middle of a set of ordered values


Analysing Data
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Important Statastical Measures
2. Measure of Disperstion
(a) Range- identifies the maximum and minimum values in
a set of numbers

(b) Mean deviation is the average of difference of the values
of items from some average of the series.

(c) Standard deviation. Standard deviation is defined as
the square-root of the average of squares of deviations.
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Important Statastical Measures

4. Measure of Relationship

By using these tools we can study the relation
between the variables. This relation my be of Bivariate
population or Multivariate population. It can
Analysing Data
Analysing Data

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Variables,
Relationship
Correlation Regression
In case of
bivariate
population

Cross tabulation;
Charles Spearmans
coefficient of correlation;
Karl Pearsons coefficient of
correlation.
Simple Regression
Multivariate
population
(a) coefficient of multiple
correlation;
(b) coefficient of partial
correlation;
Multiple regression

Partial Regression
Measure of Relationship
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Correlation

Cross tabulation approach is used when data is in a
nominal form. Under it variable are classified into table and
casual relation is estabalished between them.

Charles Spearmean Coefficient of Correlation: used in
case of ordinal where ranks are given. The main objective of
this coefficient is to determine the similarity between the
ranking of two sets of data.

Karl Pearson s Coefficient of Correlation: It studies the
casual relationship between the variables . Its value lies
between 1



Analysing Data
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Important Statastical Measures

4. Measure of Asymentry (Skewness)

Skewness is a measure of asymmetry and shows the manner
in which the items are clustered around the average.

Kurtosis is a statasticl tool to measure the asymmetry of the
distribution


Analysing Data
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Important Statastical Measures
5. Other Measure

Index- If in the unit under study comprises more than one
series we cant take the average of it. For it we have to
convert the series into some common base. It is called as
index.

Time Series In the context of economic and business
researches many a time a data is relating to some time
series. In that case time series method can be used to find
the further outcome.
Analysing Data
Interpretation

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100
Meaning of interpretation

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study.

It is a search for broader meaning of research findings.

Interpretation includes two major aspects:

(i) To establish continuity in research through linking the
results of a given study with those of another. and

(ii) The establishment of some explanatory concepts.

Interpretation
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Why Interpretation

Usefulness and utility of research findings lie in proper
interpretation. It is considered a basic component of research
because of the following reason.


(i) It is through interpretation research can relate his
research with other research and add value in the stock of
knowledge.

(ii) Interpretation leads to estabalishment of exploratory
concepts, focal point for further research.

(iii)Interpretation answers questions as What these finding
are? why this finding are ? And make other understand
the siganificance of the finding.

Interpretation
102
Technique of Interpretation
(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the
relations which he has found and he must interpret the
relations.

(ii) Interpretation leads to estabalishment of exploratory
concepts, focal point for further research.

(iii)Extraneous information, if collected during the study,
must be considered while interpreting the final results of
research study.

(iv) Before giving the final interpretation it can be consulted
to the experienced person in the filed.

(v) Researcher must give interpretation after through analysis
and after considering every aspect under study.
Interpretation
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Research report
A research report is:

(i) A written document or oral presentation based on a
written document that communicates the purpose,
scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings,
limitations and finally, recommendations of a research
project to others.

(ii) It is more than a summary of findings; rather it is a
record of the research process.

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Research report
Different steps in writing report:

(a) logical analysis of the subject-matter;
(b) preparation of the final outline;
(c) preparation of the rough draft;
(d) rewriting and polishing;
(e) preparation of the final bibliography; and
(f ) writing the final draft.
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Research report
Layout of the research report
(A) Preliminary pages;
Title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form
of preface or foreword. Then there should be a table of
contents followed by list of tables and illustrations
(B) Main text;-
i) introduction
ii) statement of findings and recommendations;
iii) the results;
iv) the implications drawn from the results; and
v) the summary.
(C) the end matter.
Appendices, index.
106
Hypothesis testing
One simply means a mere assumption or some supposition
to be proved or disproved.

A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between
variables.

It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a
guess about the research outcome.

Hypothesis testing: a statistical procedure used to accept
or reject the hypothesis based on sample information
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Hypothesis testing
Research hypothesis:
is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by
scientific methods, that relates an independent
variable to some dependent variable.
Students who receive counselling will show a greater
increase in creativity than students not
receiving counselling
the automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.
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Steps involved in hypothesis
testing
1. Formulate a hypothesis
2. Set up a suitable significance
level
3. Choose a test criterion
4. Compute
5. Make decisions
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Formulate a hypothesis
Set up two hypothesis- null hypothesis
alternate hypothesis

Set up a significance level

The confidence with which a null hypothesis is
rejected or accepted depends upon the
significance level.
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Select test criterion
Involves selecting an appropriate
statistical technique.
For a large sample (30 or more)- Z test
For a small sample( less than 30)- t test



include the testing statistic and also its
standard error
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Compute
Make decisions
to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
if the computed value falls in the rejection
region reject the null hypothesis and vice
versa
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Types of errors
DECISION
Accept Ho Reject Ho
Ho (true) Correct
decision
Type I Error
Ho( false) Type II Error Correct decision
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Interpretation
&
Report Writing
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences
from the collected facts after an analytical and/or
experimental study.
The task of interpretation has two major aspects
(I)the effort to establish continuity in research
through linking the results of a given study with those
of another, and
(II) the establishment of some explanatory concepts

Meaning of Interpretation
Interpretation
To understand the abstract principles behind research
findings.
Can establish explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide
for future research studies
Any Research can better appreciate only through
interpretation
What are the findings
why his findings are
Make others to understand the real significance of research findings.
In case of exploratory research study interpretation leads to
estabalishment of research hypothesis.
Why Interpretation?
Interpretation
Interpretation must give reasonable explanations of the
relations found in the research and interpret the relationship.
Extra information, if collected during the study, must be
considered while interpreting.
Before giving the final interpretation researcher must consult
with some one having insight into the study.
All the fact must be considered before the final interpretation
to avoide the false generalisation.
Technique Of Interpretation

Interpretation
Before giving final interpretation research must satisfy
himself that
(a) the data are appropriate,trustworthy and adequate for drawing
inferences;
(b) the data reflect good homogeneity; and
(c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.

The researcher must keep his interpretation inline with the
research process.

Interpretation must have the constant intercation with the
initial hypothesis.

Interpretation stricatly on the line of the research finding.
Precautions In Interpretation
Interpretation


Preparation of the report or the thesis:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report.

While writing the report following points need to be
consider

1) The layout of the report.

2) Language of the report should be written in a concise
and objective style in simple language. Avoiding vague
expressions such as it seems, there may be, and the like.

3) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be
used only if they present the information more clearly
and forcibly.
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Research Report



Layout of the Research Report:

(A) The preliminary pages

(B) The main text,

(C) The end matter.


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Research Report



(A). The preliminary pages

In its preliminary pages report should carry the pages
of

Title of the research followed by acknowledgements
and foreword.

There should be a table of contents followed by a list of
tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the
report.
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(B).The main text of the report

Should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction:
(b) Summary of findings
(c) Main report:
(d) Conclusion:


(a) Introduction: It should contain objective of the research,
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The
scope of the study and limitations of the study.

(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would
appear a statement of findings and recommendations.

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(B) The main text of the report

(C)Main report: The main body of the report should
be presented in logical sequence and broken-down
into readily identifiable sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text,
researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final
summing up.
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(C).End of the report
At the end of the report appendices should be enlisted.

Bibliography, list of books, journals, reports, consulted if any
should also be given in the end.

Example- Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.

Index should also be given specially in a published research
report.
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