Evolution, Ecology, Biodiversity and

Conservation

Instructor: Dr. Mark Vicari
Room 118A Farquharson
E-mail: b1001lec@yorku.ca
Office hrs: Mon. Wed. & Thurs., 1:30-2:30 or by
appointment
Welcome to
BIOL 1001
Lecture 1: Classification; development of
evolutionary theory

Outline:
Evolution: the theory
Early ideas:
Ancient Greece
Natural Theology
Linnaeus: inventor of taxonomy
Fossils
Cuvier
Hutton and Lyell
Lamarck

READINGS: Taxonomy / classification: pages 8-9
Evolution: Ch. 3 (also for next class)
Biol 1001
Jun 23 2014
2008 Gallup Poll among Americans
Which of the following statements comes closest to your views on
the origin and development of human beings?

1. Human beings have developed over millions of years
from less advanced forms of life, but God guided this
process.

2. Human beings have developed over millions of years
from less advanced forms of life, but God had no part
in this process.

3. God created human beings pretty much in their
present form at one time within the last 10,000 years
or so.

36%
14%
44%
Evolution: Just a theory?
?
5
On The Origin Of
Species, 1859
2 main points:
1. Species change over generations
Cumulative changes --> new species
Descent with modification now called
evolution
2. Natural selection is the cause of evolution

Note: (1) is an accepted fact; the importance
of (2) is still debated
What is a theory?
Oxford English Dictionary:

Sense 1: A hypothesis proposed as an explanation; hence, a mere
hypothesis, speculation, conjecture; an idea or set of ideas about
something; an individual view or notion.

This is the every-day sense of the word, often used in casual
conversation.

Sense 2: A hypothesis that has been confirmed or established by
observation or experiment, and is propounded or accepted as
accounting for the known facts; a statement of what are held to be
the general laws, principles, or causes of something known or
observed.

This is the scientific sense; it is what scientists mean when they say that
something is a theory.
Some other examples of scientific
theories:
1. The atomic theory of matter
Examples of other scientific theories
2. The heliocentric theory of the
solar system
Evolutionary thought before
Darwin
Plato (427-347 B.C.)
Two worlds:
1. Perceived world
Imperfect; not real, an illusion
2. Ideal world
Perfect, imperceptible
Individuals we see are distorted
reflections of one ideal
individual perceived variation
between individuals
Implication: perfect creatures
already exist, therefore there can
be no evolution
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Scala Naturae
Scale / ladder of nature
= ordering of species
from least to most
perfect
All creatures created to
fill a position
No vacancies
Implication: no
evolution
Europe, 1700s: Natural Theology
= the study of nature in
order to better
understand God
Biology tied to religion
Adaptations: traits that help organisms survive and
reproduce in a particular environment
= Evidence of a divine plan
Natural Theology
14
Aristotles Ladder of Nature
incorporated into Judaeo-
Christian culture
Species are deliberately, and
perfectly, designed to fill a
specific role in nature
They cannot change

Natural theology
Natural theology
- Soame Jenyns, 1757
Evolution was seen as a subversive threat to the ruling
classes
if species are not meant to play a specific role in
nature, perhaps people (officers, servants etc.) are not
meant to be dominant or subservient
Carolus Linnaeus (1707 - 1778)
Inventor of taxonomy,
the science of naming
and classifying living
things
Binomial naming
system for all
species
7-level hierarchical
classification system
Linnaeus
Prior to 18
th
C: polynomial names for
species used
= up to 12 Latin words
17
1. Binomial names
18
Common name: catnip


Polynomial name: Nepeta
floribus interrupte spicatus
pedunculatis

(Nepeta with flowers in an
interrupted pedunculate spike)


Linnaeus binomial names
Linnaeus published Species Plantarum in
1753
Described all known plants using polynomials
But he also included a binomial shorthand
name
= first word of polynomial (= Genus), plus a
second word (= specific name or specific
epithet)
19
Linnaeus binomial names
20
Common name: catnip

Polynomial name: Nepeta
floribus interrupte spicatus
pedunculatis

(Nepeta with flowers in an
interrupted pedunculate spike)

Binomial name: Nepeta
cataria
Linnaeus binomial names
1758: published
revised edition of his
earlier work Systema
Naturae
Introduced binomial
system for animals
21
Linnaeus binomial names
Common name: summer tanager
Species name: Piranga rubra

Genus / generic name = Piranga
Specific name = rubra
Common name: scarlet tanager
Species name: Piranga olivacea
- Generic name = Piranga
Specific name = olivacea
Similar species share the same
generic name; have different
specific names
Common name: summer tanager
Species name: Piranga rubra
Generic name = Piranga
Specific name = rubra
Common name: greater bird-of-paradise
Species name: Paradisaea apoda
- Generic name = Paradisaea
Specific name = apoda
Species that are not similar are
placed in different genera (=
plural of genus).
Common name: summer tanager
Species name: Piranga rubra
Generic name = Piranga
Specific name = rubra
Common name: red bird-of-paradise
Species name: Paradisaea rubra
- Generic name = Paradisaea
Specific name = rubra
Species in different genera may
occasionally share the same specific
name; this does not imply similarity.
Festuca rubra: red fescue
(a grass)
Quercus rubra: red oak (a tree)
Myrmica rubra: European fire ant
Which species is most similar to Goldies bird-of-
paradise, Paradisaea decora?







a) Valenciennea decora b) Paradisea lusitanica
c) Ornithoptera paradisea d) Paradisaea rudolphi
Linnaeus binomial names
27
paradise lily decorated gildergoby
paradise birdwing blue bird-of-paradise
Some naming conventions
Scientific (Latin) names:
should always be in italics or underlined.
Generic names are capitalized; specific names are not
(e.g., Piranga rubra is correct; not Piranga Rubra or
piranga rubra)
Generic name may be abbreviated after first usage, if
no possibility of confusion
E.g. for the rest of this presentation, I could refer to the
scarlet tanager as P. olivacea. However I cant use P. rubra
for the summer tanager (Piranga rubra) since it could be
confused with the red bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea rubra)

28
Some naming conventions
Authority sometimes included
= name of taxonomist who assigned the scientific
name
E.g. Paradisaea rubra Daudin
Name assigned by Francois M. Daudin
E.g. Quercus rubra L.
Name assigned by Linnaeus (usually abbreviated L.
or Linn.)

29
Some naming conventions
Subspecies
= geographically distinct races or varieties
Represented with a third subspecific name / epithet


30
Able to interbreed not
considered different species
Some naming conventions
Unknown or unidentified species in a genus: sp.
E.g. an unknown species of bird-of-paradise =
Paradisaea sp.

Multiple species in a genus: spp.
E.g. more than one species of bird-of-paradise =
Paradisaea spp.


31
Some naming conventions
Common names
Should not be capitalized unless
they occur at the beginning of a sentence
they contain proper names, e.g.
Goldies bird-of-paradise
American herring gull


32
2. Hierarchical classification
Seven levels (including genus and species)
Each level called a rank
Every species has a name, or taxon (pl.
taxa) in every rank
33
Linnaeus
34
Linnaeus heirarchical classification
Kids
Prefer
Cheese
Over
Fried
Green
Spinach
Group of similar
individuals
Group of similar species
Group of similar genera
Group of similar families
Group of similar orders
Group of similar classes
Group of similar phyla
(pl. phylum)
35
Example:

What are the seven
categories for this species?
36
Animalia (animals)
Ingest organic
food
37
Animalia (animals)

Arthropoda
Animals with a
jointed exoskeleton
38
Animalia (animals)

Arthropoda

Insecta
Arthropods with six legs
39
Animalia (animals)

Arthropoda

Insecta

Lepidoptera
Butterflies and moths
40
Animalia (animals)

Arthropoda

Insecta

Lepidoptera

Nymphalidae
Brush-footed butterflies
41
Animalia (animals)

Arthropoda

Insecta

Lepidoptera

Nymphalidae

Danaus
Orange-coloured brush-
footed butterflies with
black spots
42
Animalia (animals)

Arthropoda

Insecta

Lepidoptera

Nymphalidae

Danaus

Danaus plexippus
Front legs reduced in size
Note:
1) Only genus and
species are
italicized
2) Nymphalidae is
a taxon of the
family rank
Note:
Plural = Species
Singular =
Species

Additional levels can be created using super-
, sub- and infra- prefixes
E.g.:
order > suborder > infraorder > superfamily > family
Butterflies belong to Lepidoptera suborder
Rhopalocera
Have clubbed antennae

44
Linnaeus heirarchical classification
Moths have tapered antennae
45 45
Recent addition: Domain
Adds an eighth level to the Linnaean hierarchy
Group of similar
Kingdoms
Aristotle: classified with birds (a flying animal)
Linnaeus: classified it as a fish (based on anatomy)
Better reflects evolutionary relationship
Linnean classification based on morphology
(= appearance / shape)
c.f. Aristotle: based on function
46
Linnaeus heirarchical classification
Flying fish
Linnaeus was not an evolutionist
But his 7-level hierarchical system was
suggestive of a family tree of species to
others who came after
47
Linnaeus heirarchical classification
Fossils
= Remains or
impressions of
organisms from the
past, mineralized in
rocks
Often do not resemble
living species
Sometimes found in
strange places (e.g.
seashells on mountain
tops)
Study = paleontology
French
Paleontologist
Made three
observations
about fossils
49
Georges Cuvier (1769 1832)
1. Fossils occur in sedimentary rock layers
(= strata; singular, stratum)

50
Georges Cuvier
51
Recent strata at top
of rock profile
Niagara Gorge
Georges Cuvier
Older strata at
bottom
Observations contd:
2) Each stratum has its own distinctive set of fossils
3) Fossils in older strata tend to be more different from
modern-day organisms than those from recent strata
Theory: CATASTROPHISM
droughts, fires, floods & other catastrophes periodically
wipe out local organisms
Other organisms immigrate into the area from
surrounding areas to replace them
Some new species may also be created supernaturally

52
Georges Cuvier
Theory: GRADUALISM
Geological features (strata,
canyons, etc.) are created
by slow, subtle processes
(erosion, sedimentation,
etc)
These processes act over
very long periods of time,
producing dramatic results

53
James Hutton (1726 1797)
Theory:
UNIFORMITARIANISM
Geological processes
operating today (erosion,
glaciation, etc) are the
same today as they were
in the past
No one-off catastrophes
54
Charles Lyell (1797 1875)
Implications from Hutton &
Lyells theories
1. Earth must be very old
2. Slow, subtle processes acting over long
periods of time can have a dramatic effect
55
Huttons & Lyells theories ran
against church doctrine of the time
56
Church: earth is ~6,000 years old
Calculated by biblical scholars
Based on number of generations that had
passed since Adam and Eve
57
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
(1744-1829)
Supported biological evolution
Observed fossils become more dissimilar
from modern species with increasing age
58
Unlike Cuvier, Lamarck interpreted the fossil
record as evidence that species had changed
(evolved) over time
Believed change occurs because species
respond to their environment by developing
adaptations.
Lamarck
the bird of the waterside, which does not like swimming, and yet is in
need of going to the waters edge to secure its prey, is continually liable to
sink in the mud. Now this bird tries to act in such a way that its body should
not be immersed in the liquid, and hence makes its best efforts to stretch and
lengthen its legs. The long-established habit acquired by this bird and all its
race of continually stretching and lengthening its legs results in the
individuals of this race becoming raised as though on stilts, and gradually
obtaining long bare legs, denuded of feathers up to the thighs and often
higher still.
Lamarck
60 60 60
Lamarcks Principles of Nature:
1. Use and disuse
Use an organ it grows, strengthens
Dont use an organ it shrinks, disappears

2. Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Acquisitions / losses due to (1) are passed
on through generations
Lamarck
62
August Weismann
(1834-1914)
Tested Lamarcks theory
1860s experiment: cut off tails
of mice for 22 generations
23rd generation still developed
fully-formed tails
Generally there is no evidence
to support either of Lamarcks
principles
BUT Lamarck deserves credit
for being the first biologist to
acknowledge the existence of
evolution, and that evolution
results in adaptations