Basic Electronics

BASIC ELECTRONICS
By
MANISH SHARMA

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ECE-101F BASIC ELECTRONICS

L T P Sessional : 50 Marks
3 0 0 Exam : 100 Marks
Total : 150 Marks
Duration of Exam : 3 Hrs
Note:
Examiner will set 9 questions in total, with two questions from each section
and one question covering all sections which will be Q.1. This Q.1 is
compulsory and of short answer type. Each question carries equal mark (20
marks). Students have to attempt 5 questions in total.
Section A
Semiconductor Physics: Basic concepts, Intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors, diffusion and drift currents, p-n junction under open-circuit,
reverse bias and forward-bias conditions, p-n junction in the breakdown
region, Ideal diode, terminal characteristics of junction diode.
Amplifiers: Introduction of different types of amplifiers and their
characteristics, Principle of amplification, Frequency response of RC
coupled amplifiers, amplifier bandwidth and Concept of Cascaded
Amplifiers, Feedback amplifiers, Effect of positive and negative feedback on
amplifier gain and bandwidth.
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Section B
Oscillators: Criteria for oscillations, Qualitative
analysis of LC, RC and Crystal Oscillators,
Study of Wein Bridge Oscillators
Operational Amplifiers: Op-amps, its
characteristics and its applications.
Power Suppliers: Introduction and Working of
Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS),
Voltage Regulator, Introduction to Inverters
and UPS.

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Section C
Digital Electronics: Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal
number systems and conversions, Boolean Algebra,
Truth tables of logic gates (AND, OR, NOT), NAND,
NOR as universal gates, Difference between
combinational circuits and sequential circuits,
Introduction to flip-flops (S-R & J-K).
Electronics Instruments: Role, importance and
applications of general-purpose test instruments viz
Multimeter Digital & Analog, Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO), Function/Signal Generator.

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Section D
Displays : Seven segment display, Fourteen
segment display, Dot matrix display
LED Display : Introduction, Construction, Advantage
of LEDs in electronics display
LCD Display : Introduction; Types of LCD display:-
Dynamic scattering and field effect type; Types of
liquid crystal cells :- Transmitting type and reflective
type; Advantage & disadvantage of LCD display
common applications.

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Books Recommended

1. Sedra A S and Smith K C, Microelectronic Circuits 4th Ed.,
New York, Oxford University Press, New York (1997).
2. Tocci R J and Widmer N S, Digital Systems Principles and
Applications, 8th Ed., Pearson Education India, New Delhi
(2001).
3. Cooper and Helfrick, Modern Electronic Instrumentation and
Measuring Techniques, 4th print Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi (1996).
4. Boylestad and Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit
Theory, 8th Ed, Pearson Education India, New Delhi (2002).
5. Millman and Grabel, Microelectronics, 2nd Ed. Tata
McGraw-Hill (1999).
6. Basic Electronics by J.B. Gupta

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ECE-103F Basic of Electronics
Lab

1. To get familiar with the working knowledge of the following instruments:
a) Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
b) Multimeter (Analog and Digital)
c) Function generator
d) Power supply

2.
a) To measure phase difference between two waveforms using CRO
b) To measure an unknown frequency from Lissajous figures using CRO

3.
a) Plot the forward and reverse V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode
b) Calculation of cut-involtage
c) Study of Zener diode in breakdown region

4. To plot and study the input and output characteristics of BJT in common-emitter configuration
5. To find frequency response of a given amplifier and calculate its bandwidth
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ECE-103F Basic of Electronics
Lab
6. To get familiar with pin-configuration of typical op-amp(741) and its use as:
a) Inverting amplifier
b) Non-inverting amplifiler
c) Summing amplifier
d) Difference amplifier
7. Use of op-amp as

a) Integrator
b) Differentiator
8. To assemble Wein Bridge oscillator circuit and calculation of oscillation-
frequency and its verification from the observed output
9. To assemble and test 5V/9 V DC regulated power supply and find its line-
regulation and loand-regulation
10. Verification of truth tables of logic gates (OR,AND, NOT, NAND, NOR)
11. Verification of truth tables of flip-flops (S-R, J-K)
12. To get familiar with the working and use of seven-segment display.

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What is Electronics
It is derived from electron mechanism
which means study of behavior of electron
under different condition
According to radio engineer (IRE ) a
standard definition is that field of science
and engg. Which deals with electron
device and their utilization
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Electronics
Its a newcomer in filed of engg. as
compared to other branches

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Applications of Electronics
Communications :-Telegraphy ,
Telephony, Wireless comm., radio & TV
Broadcasting
Defence App :- Radar (Radio detection &
Ranging )
Industrial App:- electronics devics .
Automatic control instruments.
Medical Instruments :- likes Xray
Machines , ECG machines .

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Applications of Electronics
Instrumentation :-measuring instruments
like CRO Multimeter Function Generator
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Introduction
What is a Semiconductor?
Many materials, such as most metals, allow electrical
current to flow through them
These are known as conductors
Materials that do not allow electrical current to flow
through them are called insulators
Pure silicon, the base material of most transistors, is
considered a semiconductor because its conductivity can
be modulated by the introduction of impurities
Effect of temp on semiconductor is negative temp
cofficient ie with increase in temp resistivity decreases .
Conductors obeys ohms law

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SEMICONDUCTORS
Advantages such as:-
Compact size
Low cost
Light weight
Rugged construction
Long life

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Structure of an Atom
Rutherford model of an atom
According to this model :
Centre of atom consists of nucleus
Proton + neutrons are present in nucleus
Electrons revolves around nucleus
Rutherford model is comparable to solar
system
As atom is neutral so
no of electron = no of protons

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Structure of an Atom
Its centrifugal force which dont allows electron to be
attracted towards nucleus
Charge on electron is 1.6* 10
-19
C
Mass of electron 9.1*10
-31
Mass of proton & neutron 1800 times the mass of
electron
Atomic no = Proton no.
No of proton + No of neutron in nucleus = mass no
Eg :-aluminium has 79 proton & 118 neutron
So atomic no = 79 & mass no =79+118

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Electron orbit & energy level
Electron occupy certain rings or shells at
fixed distance from nucleus
Shell are K L M N O P Q
No of electron in shells 2n
2
Electrons in outer most orbit are valence
electrons
Electron volt is unit to measure energy in
electron
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Energy band structures
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Typical Resistivity Values
Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
106 -cm 50 -cm (germanium) 1012 -cm
(copper) 50 103 -cm (silicon) (mica)
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Drift & Diffusion Current
Drift current occurs when due to an
external applied electric field there exit a
steady state drift velocity of electrons &
current flowing due to this effect is called
drift current
v= E
= Mobility is defined as avg particle drift
velocity per unit electron
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Diffusion Current
Diffusion occur due to concentration
gradient
It occurs when charge carriers diffuse from
point of concentration ,to spread uniformly
throughout the volume of a piece of
material

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Atomic bond
What happen to electrons in outer most shell when
atoms combines or bonds themselves
Atomic Bond
Primary bond Secondary Bond
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Primary Bond

They are the strongest bond
Primary Bond
Metallic Covalent Ionic
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Secondary Bond
They are weaker than primary bond
Attra ction forces exist between atoms
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Metallic Bond
When atom gives up their loosely held valance
electron
Such a bond exist between loosly held valance
electron
In a more quantum mechanical view, the
conduction electrons divide their density equally
over all atoms that function as neutral
Fig shows +ve metal ions surrounded by
valance electrons
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Covalent bond
Characterized by the sharing of pairs of
electrons between atoms
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Ionic bonding
Atoms of one element transfer electrons to
other so that both have stable
configuration
Bond formed by the attraction between
two oppositely charged ions.
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Comparison
Ionic Covalent Metallic
Bond strength

1 2 3
Melting point 1 1 2
Hardness 2 1 3
Bond length is spacing between 2 atoms
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Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor
Its simply the ref energy level .
Energy level at which probability of finding the
electron n energy units above it in conduction
band is equal to probability of finding the holes
of n energy unit below valence band .
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P N Junction
When p type & n type are
combined by some
technique (ie. Ion
implantation or diffusion )
P type has majority carriers
as holes & acceptor ions
N type has majority carriers
as electrons & donor ions
There exist a concentration
gradient of in P & N
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P N Junction
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P N Junction
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P N Junction
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P N Junction
Diffusion current is due to concentration gradient
Diffusion of holes is from P to N Side
Diffusion of electron is from N to P Side
Holes & electron recombine & uncover bound
charges
So a layer of +ve fixed charge is formand on the
n side of junction
Layer of -ve fixed charge is formand on the p
side of junction

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P N Junction
A potential barrier is formed across the
junction
An electric field is formed because of
uncovering of bond charges
Due to this electric field minority charge
carries (thermally generated )starts flowing
This gives rise to drift current

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P N Junction
Under steady state
Drift current = diffusion current
So net current is 0 under open circuit
Built in potential for silicon & germanium
are 0.7& 0.3 respectively

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P N Junction
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P N Junction
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Forward biased PN junction
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Reverse biased PN JUNCTION
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V-I CHAR.
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Junction breakdown
Under reverse bias condition only reverse saturation
current flows
Reverse saturation current is due to minority carriers & it
is almost independent of voltage applied.
When reverse bias is increased a point will reach when
current increases abruptly
This could destroy jun.
The value of voltage at which breakdown of P-N junction
occurs is called breakdown voltage
Breakdown voltage depends upon width of depletion
region & in turn depends upon doping level

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MECHANISUM OF BREAKDOWN
When a thermally generated carrier (part of the reverse
saturation current) falls down the junction
and acquires energy of the applied potential, the carrier
collides with crystal ions and imparts sufficient energy
to disrupt a covalent bond.
In addition to the original carrier, a new electron-hole
pair is generated.
This pair may pick up sufficient energy from the applied
field to collide with another crystal ion
and create still another electron-hole pair. This action
continues and thereby disrupts the covalent bonds.
The process is referred to as impact ionization,
avalanche multiplication or avalanche breakdown.
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There is a second mechanism that disrupts the covalent bonds.
The use of a sufficiently strong electric field at the junction can cause
a direct
rupture of the bond.
If the electric field exerts a strong force on a bound electron, the
electron can
be torn from the covalent bond
thus causing the number of electron-hole pair combinations to
multiply.
This mechanism is called high field emission or Zener breakdown.
The value of reverse voltage at which this occurs is controlled by the
amount
of doping of the diode.
A heavily doped diode has a low Zener breakdown voltage, while a
lightly
doped diode has a high Zener breakdown voltage.
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Ideal diode
(b) Equivalent circuit under reverse bias
(c) Equivalent circuit in conducting state
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Ideal diode
When diode is forward biased, resistance
offered is zero,
When it is reverse biased resistance
offered is infinity. It acts as a perfect
switch
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Diode current voltage relation
N is a number that can vary according to the voltage and current levels.
It depends on electron drift, diffusion, and carrier recombination in the depletion
region.
Among the quantities affecting the value of N are the diode manufacture, levels of
doping and purity of materials.
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Terminal char of P-N
The char curve consists of three regions
Forward biased region
Reverse biased region
Breakdown region
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Forward biased region

As from diode equation forward current
considering I >> I
s

I = I
o
e
V / V
T
Relation can be alternatively expressed in
log form as
V=

V

T
log
e
I / I
o
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Reverse biased region
Reverse bias region constitutes reverse
saturation current or scale current of order
of 10
-15
A
Due to this reverse current which flows
due to diode is 1nA
Reverse saturation current has temp effect
i.e. with every 50 rise in temp the Reverse
saturation current will double.
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Break down region
This region is achived when reverse voltage exceeds breakdown
voltage
Reverse current increases rapidly
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Basic Electronics

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