Coding No.

1
Seattle Pacific University
Modulation
Kevin Bolding
Electrical Engineering
Seattle Pacific University

Coding No. 2
Seattle Pacific University
Digital Transmission of Analog Data
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Convert to discrete samples (time domain)
Convert to discrete levels (amplitude)
Optionally re-map to a different logical
code (may expand)
Map to a physical code at desired frequency band
Amplify and transmit
Analog signal
Digital
data
Coding No. 3
Seattle Pacific University
Sampling
Sampling theorem:
If sample rate >= 2x max
frequency (f)
And samples have infinite
precision (analog)
Can reproduce signal
exactly after filtering out
frequencies >f

0
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
5
Pulse-Amplitude
Modulation PAM
Samples have analog
(infinite precision) values
Undersampling
If sample rate is < 2f then it
is possible to map multiple
waveforms to the data
(aliasing)

Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 4
Seattle Pacific University
Pulse Code Modulation
PCM:
Approximate analog
samples with a discrete
sample
n bit sample 2
n
levels

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
7 8 10 13 13 12 10 7 2 1 1 1 2 5 7 8
Errors
Not analog, so quantizing error is present
Each additional bit halves the quantizing error (in volts)
SNR is Power ratio (proportional to V
2
)
Each extra bit used increases SNR by factor of 4 (6 dB)
N bits Signal/quantization error = 4
n
or 6n dB
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
For n-bit quantization,
the SNR =
6.02(n) + 1.76 dB
Coding No. 5
Seattle Pacific University
Coding
Coding is the substitution of one digital code for
another digital code
Incoming bit stream is assumed to be unencoded
raw bits (0 means 0 and 1 means 1)
Substitute code may alter or add to the bit stream in a
way that can be inverted
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Purposes of coding
Encryption
Redundancy to help with error detection and
correction
Coding is addressed separately (later)
Coding No. 6
Seattle Pacific University
Modulation
Modulation: Alteration of one wave (carrier) to carry
information provided by another (signal)
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
If the Modulating signal is a digital signal, we have a wider
variety of choices
Vary amplitude, phase, or frequency
ASK, PSK, FSK
Send more than one bit per symbol
Vary more than one aspect at the same time
QAM varies both amplitude and phase
For digital data transmission, the Bit Error Rate is the measure of
performance
Coding No. 7
Seattle Pacific University
Bit Error Rate
Digital signal quality is measured by the Bit Error Rate
Number of errors per bit transmitted, usually assuming uniform,
non-correlated noise
For example, BER of 10
-6
means an average of one error per
million data bits transmitted
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 8
Seattle Pacific University
Bit Errors From Noise
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Threshold
Errors from noise
If the SNR is too low, errors occur
If the noise causes the signal to cross the threshold, the bit will be
read in error

Coding No. 9
Seattle Pacific University
Bit Errors from Bandwidth Limited ISI
If the bandwidth is too low so pulses spread out
Sequential pulses start to overlap and interfere with each other
Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)

Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Threshold
Pulse-spreading
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Coding No. 10
Seattle Pacific University
Bit Errors from Delay ISI
Multiple paths (due to reflections) have different lengths
Each path has a different delay
Reflections overlap and spread out
Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)

Image source: http://www.complextoreal.com/chapters/isi.pdf
Coding No. 11
Seattle Pacific University
Energy ratio E/N
0
as a Measure of Quality of Signal

E/N
0
: Energy per bit / Noise power density
Similar to SNR, but also accounts for the bandwidth used
Normally expressed in dB
Equal to SNR if transmitting 1bit/Hz
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
The quality of a modulated signal increases with:
Increased Signal-to-Noise ratio (S/N)
Increased bitRate-to-Bandwidth ratio (B/R)
A combined metric can be formed by multiplying these

S/N * B/R = SB/NR = (S/R) / (N/B)
S/R = signal power / bits / time
= (signal power)(time)/bits
= Energy per bit = E or E
b

N/B = Noise power / Bandwidth
= Noise power density = N
0
Coding No. 12
Seattle Pacific University
Energy ratio and BER
Higher E/N
0
means more resources available to a signal
Resources = SNR and bandwidth
Real measure of quality is the BER
For a given modulation scheme, we can plot the BER vs. E/N
0
We want BER to be low
We expect BER to go down with increased E/N
0
Error rate vs. E/N0 Ratio for Various Modulation Schemes
1E-12
1E-11
1E-10
1E-9
1E-8
1E-7
1E-6
1E-5
1E-4
1E-3
1E-2
1E-1
1E+0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
E/N0 (dB)
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

E
r
r
o
r
ASK
BPSK
DPSK
Worse
Better
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 13
Seattle Pacific University
Binary Phase Shift Keying
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Use PM techniques
Use phase angles (usually
0 and p)
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
F(t)=
p, if s(t) = 1
0, if s(t) = 0
X LPF BPSK
Recovered Carrier
Data out
BPSK Recovery (Coherent)
Coherent Recovery (BPSK):
In-phase carrier available
at receiver.
Incoherent Recovery (DPSK):
Differential encoding allows
recovery without carrier
Coding No. 14
Seattle Pacific University
QPSK
BPSK uses two phase angles, 0 and p
Two possibilities for symbol One bit per symbol
If we use more phase angles, we can send more data per
symbol
Quadrature (or Quaternary) PSK
QPSK uses angles p/4, 3p/4, 5p/4, 7p/4
Four possibilities for symbol Two bits per symbol
p
0,1
0
BPSK
0,-1
5p/4
p/4 3p/4
7p/4
QPSK
-1,1
1,-1
-1,-1
1,1
Noise causing phase change within +/- p/2 will not
cause error
Noise causing phase change within +/- p/4 will not
cause error
Symbol error rate twice as high as BPSK, but sends
twice as many bits/second Efficiency tie?
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 15
Seattle Pacific University
Generating QPSK
Generate two signals in quadrature to each other (p out of
phase)
Cosine and Sine work well
Horizontal axis is the I-axis, Vertical is the Q-axis
Represent bits: 0 -1, 1 +1
Group consecutive bits together in pairs; first bit is value is I,
second is Q
Multiply coordinates by the I and Q carriers and add
5p/4
p/4 3p/4
7p/4
I=-1,Q=1
I=-1,Q=1
I=-1,Q=-1
I=1,Q=1
I = In Phase Carrier
(cosine)
Q = Quadrature Phase Carrier (sine)
X
Data
QPSK Generation
Splitter
X
p/2
+
QPSK
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 16
Seattle Pacific University
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
QPSK Waveform
I=1,Q=1 I=-1,Q=1 I=-1,Q=-1 I=1,Q=1 I=1,Q=-1
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 17
Seattle Pacific University
Constant Envelope Modulation
Signal is sent by modulating the phase or
frequency of carrier
BPSK, QPSK are the most common
No signal is modulated on the amplitude
Distortion of carrier amplitude does not affect the
signal
Can be linear or nonlinear in digital mobile
systems
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 18
Seattle Pacific University
QPSK Signal Transition Diagram


01
11
00 10
+135
o
+45
o
-135
o
-45
o
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Shows transitions
possible from one state to
the next
In QPSK, all transitions
are possible
The diagonal transitions
create a particularly
abrupt change in phase
Create large sidelobes
outside of the primary
band
Coding No. 19
Seattle Pacific University
Offset QPSK Modular Circuit

~
X
X
+
p/2
/ 2
ODD
EVEN
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 20
Seattle Pacific University
OQPSK Signal Space

01
11
00 10
+135
o
+45
o
-135
o
-45
o
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 21
Seattle Pacific University
p/4 QPSK

~
X
X
+
p
/2
p
/4
ODD
EVEN
Every other
symbol
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission
Coding No. 22
Seattle Pacific University
p/4-QPSK Signal Space Diagram

(0, 1)A
(0, 0)A
(1, 1)A (1, 0)A
(0, 0)B
(0, 1)B
(1, 1)B
(1, 0)B
Sampling
Quantizing
Coding
Modulation
Transmission