Consumer Behaviour

CONSUMBE BEHAVIOR
Chapter 2 Complex Decision Making

Chapter3 Brand Loyalty

Chapter4 Low Involvement Decision
Making

Chapter5 Situational Determinants of
Consumer Behavior
CONTENT PART2
Part 2 Consumer Decision Making

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
LAST CHAPTER NEXT CHAPTER CONTENT
what is consumer decision
consumer decision is the activity when the consumer chooses one commodity from two
or more commodities.
Four factors we should master
A. The consumer must confront a problem that has to be settled.
B. There are many products to choose from. Different products stand for different brand,
and have different prices.
C. The consumers decision can not always solve the problem, that is to say, the decision
has risk.
D. There is only one feasible choice.

Types of consumer decision(Figure2.1)
Basic decision: buy or not.
Brand decision: single out the product which is more suitable.
Decision of purchasing channel, time, and who.
Decision of how to buy.
2.1Types of consumer decision
LAST CHAPTER NEXT CHAPTER
Theories about consumer decision
1.The theory of taking consumer as economic person.
The consumer will acquaint himself or herself with some similar products and will
contrast them when buying, so as to gain the maximum advantage.
2.The theory of taking consumers as passive persons.
The consumer always accept persuasion from enterprises, accordingly, he or she will
buy the products.
3.The theory of taking consumer as problem-solver.
When buying, the consumer will search for some information about the product, at the
same time, he or she will evaluate it. So it is a process that the consumer actively solve
the problem.
Inertia (Chapter4
Brand loyalty
Chapter3
Variety seeking
Chapter4
Complex decision
Chapter2
High involvement Low involvement
purchase decision purchase decision
Decision
making

Habit
Figure 2.1 Consumer
Decision Making
2.2High involvement decision
In complex decision making,the consumer evaluates brands in a more detailed and
comprehensive manner. More information is sought and more brands are evaluated.
Such a process is most likely for:
High priced products
Products associated with performance risks (medical products, automobiles)
Complex products(stereo sets, home computers)
Specially goods (sports equipment, furniture),and
Products associated with ones ego(clothing, cosmetics).

The process of high involvement decision making can be defined as following:
Need arousal. A consumer begins with a particular state of mind that represents his or
her perceptions of and attitude toward known brands.
Information processing. The immediate result of need arousal is a greater awareness
of information about the product.
Brand evaluation. It takes place at the same time as information processing. The
consumer will establish certain criteria, and each brand is judged on the criteria.
Purchase. After evaluation, the consumer will purchase the product in accordance to
the criteria.
Postpurchase evaluation. After purchasing, the consumer will evaluate the brands
performance.
NEED
AROUSAL
CONSUMER
INFORMATION
PROCESSING
BRAND
EVALUATION
PURCHASE
POSTPURCHASE
EVALUATION
Feedback
Figure2.2 A Basic Model of Complex Decision Making
NEED AROUSAL
INPUT VARIABLES
INTERNAL
Consumers Past Experiences
Consumer Characteristics
Demographics
Life-style
Personality
Consumer Motivations

EXTERNAL
Environmental Influences
Face-to-face groups
Situational determinants
Social class
Culture
Marketing Stimuli
Product
Price
Promotion
Store
CONSUMERS
PSYCHOLOGICAL SET
STIMULUS
EXPOSURE
NEED
RECOGNITION
(initiation of
decision making)
Tension State
Need Criteria

Brand Attitudes

Beliefs about the brands

Brands evaluation

Tendency to act
CONSUMER INFORMATION PROCESSING
INPUT
VARIABLES
CONSUMERS
PSYCHOLOGICAL
SET
NEED
RECOGNITION
STIMULUS
EXPOSURE
MEMORY
SEARCH FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Selectivity
Past information
New information
PERCEPTION
OF STIMULI
Attention

Comprehension

Retention
Perception of stimuli
Stimuli are more likely to be perceived when they:
conform to consumers past experiences,
conform to consumers current beliefs about a brand,
are not too complex,
are believable,
relate to a set of current needs,and
do not produce excessive fears and anxieties.
Search for additional information
Such a search is most likely when the consumer:
feels that alternative brands being considered are inadequate,
has insufficient information about the brands under consideration,
receives information from friends or media sources that conflicts with past experience
and current information,or
is close to deciding on a particular brand and would like to confirm expectations
regarding its performance.
INPUT
VARIABLES
CONSUMERS
PSYCHOLOGICAL
SET
NEED
RECOGNITION
STIMULUS
EXPOSURE
Selectivity
PERCEPTION
OF STIMULI
EXPECTED
SATISFACTION
NEED
ASSOCIATION
CHANGES IN
CONSUMERS
PSYCHOLOGICAL SET
Changes in need criteria

Changes in brand attitudes
Define needs
Establish priority
of needs
Evaluate each
brand by using:
Compensatory
decision rules
Noncompensatory
decision rules
Arrive at expected
satisfaction for each
brand based on need
association
BRAND EVALUATION
PURCHASE AND POSTPURCHASE EVALUATION
INPUT
VARIABLES
CONSUMERS
PSYCHOLOGICAL
SET
NEED
RECOGNITION
STIMULUS
EXPOSURE
Selectivity
PERCEPTION
OF STIMULI
EXPECTED
SATISFACTION
NEED
ASSOCIATION
CHANGES IN
CONSUMERS
PSYCHOLOGICAL SET
INTENTION
TO BUY
PURCHASE
POST-
PURCHASE
EVALUATION
NO PURCHASE
Outside Constraints
Instrumental Actions
Tension State
Feedback
Choice Questions
1.Which of the following is a proper function for a consumer model :
A to provide an integrative view of consumer behavior
B to provide detailed guidelines for the development of media and advertising strategies
C to identify new product characteristics to meet consumer needs
D to provide a basis for organizing marketing activities
2.It is generally easier to organize information by:
A attribute B brand C neither D both
3.Stimuli are more likely to be perceived when they:
A conform to cultural norms B are complex
C deal with information about existing brands D relate to consumer needs

True-False Questions

1.A model of consumer behavior is equally relevant for all product categories.
2.A model of consumer behavior should provide detailed guidance in establishing criteria
by which to position a product.
3.A consumers action tendency toward a brand is represented by whether it was the
brand last purchased.
4.Consumer information processing always requires interpretation and comprehension of
a stimulus.
5.Generally, consumer like to use as few need criteria as possible in evaluating brands,
consistent with choosing a satisfactory rather than an optimal product.
ANSWER 1 A 2 A 3 D 1 F 2 F 3 F 4 F 5 T

Questions

A large auto manufacturer conducted a survey of recent car purchasers to determine
their needs in buying a new car and their perceptions of the companys makes so as to
evaluate possible new product offerings. Information collected by the company can be
classified into information dealing with each of the four stages of the decision-making
model,namely:
A,Need arousal
1)consumer thought variables
2)consumer characteristics
B,Information processing
1)exposure to marketing stimuli
2)perceptions of marketing stimuli
C,Evaluation of alternative brands of cars
D,Purchase and postpurchase evaluation
Specify the types of information the auto manufacturer might collect from consumers for
each of the four stages described above,
Specify the strategic applications of such information.
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Chapter 3 LearningHabit and
Brand Loyalty
3.1.1 Fundamental theories of learning
1)Conditioning theories
Classic conditioning explains behavior based on repetitive stimuli and the
establishment of a close association (contiguity) between a secondary stimulus (picture
of cowboy in a Marboro ad) and the primary stimulus (need for a cigarette).Figure3.1

Chapter3 Brand Loyalty
3.1 Consumer learning
Instrumental conditioning views behavior as a function of the consumers assessment of
the degree of satisfaction obtained from the action. Satisfaction leads to reinforcement
and to an increase in the probability of repurchasing. Figure3.2

2). Cognitive learning theory
Cognitive psychologists view learning as a problem-solving process rather than the
stimulus and response. Learning is a cognitive process of perceiving stimuli,
associatingstimuli to needs, evaluating alternative brands, and assessing whether
expectations have been met. Learning is equated to a process of complex decision
making because of the emphasis on problem solving.

Classic conditioning

Unconditioned response
stimulus

conditioned
stimulus

emphasis : association through reception and contiguity
Figure 3.1 Classic conditioning
Cognitive theory emphasizes the thought process involved in consumer learning;
classic and instrumental conditioning emphasize the result based on the stimulus
association. Figure 3.3

instrumental conditioning

behavior increase or decrease in
probability of response

reward or
punishment

emphasis : reinforcement; dependence of outcome on learners action.
Figure3.2 Instrumental conditioning
Cognitive learning theory

Goal purposive insight goal
behavior achievement

emphasis: problem solving,understanding relationships
Figure3.3 Cognitive learning theroy
3). Learning curve
In general, learning of all but the simplest tasks appears to follow a rather common
pattern which has become known as a learning curve.
A
m
o
u
n
t

l
e
a
r
n
t

Number of practice trials
Figure 3.4 A typical learning curve
Recognition
Recall
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

Hour since learning
Figure 3.5 Forgetting curve
4).Forgetting curve
3.1.2 Consumer learning and purchasing
1). Enlarge consumers knowledge of products and enrich their purchasing experience.
2). Help to promote consumers repurchasing.

3.1.3 Consumers learning methods
1)try and error
2)comparison: get a better knowledge comparing
3)imitation: imitation can be intentional or unintentional
4)discovery: get a better knowledge through information search
3.2Habit
3.2.1 A model of habitual purchasing behavior -Figure3.6

3.2.2 The functions of habit
Purchasing by habit provides two important benefits to the consumer.First,it reduces
risk. Second,it facilitates decision making.

3.2.3 Habit versus Complex decision making Table 3.1

CONSUMERS
PSYCHOLOGICAL SET
STIMULUS
EXPOSURE
PERCEPTION
OF STIMULI
NEED
ASSOCIATION
Tension State
NEED
RECOGNITION
POSTCHASE
EVALUATION
PURCHASE
INTENTION
TO BUY
OUTSIDE
CONSTRAINTS
REVERET TO COMPLEX
DECISION MAKING
F
e
e
d
b
a
c
k

Satisfaction and Reinforcement
Dissatisfaction and Extinction
Selectivity
Figure 5.6 A model of habitual purchasing behavior
Habit Complex Decision Making
Limited informational search Extensive informational search
High frequency of purchase Low frequency of purchase
Low price High price
Low involvement High involvement
Intensive distribution Selective distribution
Less need for service More need for service
People promotion is important People promotion is not important
Promotion is important Promotion is not important
Advertising is for reminding Advertising is for providing informations
High sensibility of price Low sensibility of price
Table 3.1 Habit versus Complex decision making
3.2.4Inducing a switch from habit to decision making
Generally, the market leader in a category is more likely to be purchased by habit.
Various marketing strategies can induce consumers who buy by habit to consider other
brands by:
3.3Brand loyalty
There is a close link between habit ,learning,and brand loyalty. Brand loyalty
represents a favorable attitude toward and consistent purchase of a single brand over
time.

Two approaches to the study of brand loyalty have dominated marketing literature.
The first ,an instrumental conditioning approach,views consistent purchasing of one
brand over time as an indication of brand loyalty. The second approach to the study of
brand loyalty is based on cognitive theories. Loyalty implies a commitment to a brand
that may not be reflect by just measuring continuous behavior.

Despite the product-specific nature of brand loyalty, some generalizations can be
made about those who tend to be brand loyal. These findings can be summarized as
follows:
Brand-loyalty consumers are more likely to be influenced by reference groups.
The brand-loyalty consumer tends to be more self-confident in his or her choice.
The brand-loyalty consumer tends to be in the higher income group.
Brand-loyalty consumers are more likely to perceive a higher level of risk in the
purchase.
The brand-loyalty consumer is more likely to be store-loyal.
Choice Questions
1.Habit is a means of :
A choosing and processing marketing information in an efficient
B insuring satisfaction based on past experience
C assessing the positive and negative attributes of a brand
D considering alternative brands and choosing the best one.
2.Brand loyalty is a result of :
A a favorable attitude towards the brand
B repurchasing the brand over time
C reinforcement
D all of the above
3.Purchasing by habit tends to :
A increase risk
B decrease brand involvement
C reduce shopping time
D increase price sensitivity
4.Which of following concept is associated with classical conditioning:
A repetition B reinforcement C forgetting D satisfaction E all of the above
5.Which of following concept is associated with instrumental conditioning:
A contiguity B reinforcement C problem solving D information processing
6.Cognitive theory describes learning as a:
A stochastic process B repetitive process C process of problem solving
D behavioral process E all of above
7.Brand loyal consumers are more likely to be :
A opinion leaders B younger C self-confident in brand choice D innovators
8.Brand loyalty is more likely to occur when the brand is:
A well-known B a private brand C a durable D not seen as risky good

True-False Question

1.Boredom with the existing brand might be a sufficient reason to cause a consumer to
switch from habit to decision-making.
2.Widespread distribution provides an important reminder effect when consumers
purchase by habit.
3.Cognitive learning theory is more relevant in understanding complex decision-making
than habit.
4.Consumers who buy a brand regularly but are not strongly committed to it are brand
loyal.
ANSWER 1 B 2 D 3 C 4 A 5 B 6 C 7 C 8 A 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 F
Questions

This chapter suggests that boredom and desire for variety may result in a change from
habit to decision making.
Is this more likely for certain product categories than others?
Is this more likely for certain consumers than others? That is, is there a stick with it
type as opposed to a novelty seeker type?
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Chapter 4 Low Involvement
Decision Making
Chapter4 Low Involvement Decision Making
4.1 The important of a low involvement perspective
A low involvement purchase is one where the consumer does not consider the
product sufficiently important to his or her belief system and does not strongly identify
with the product.
4.1.1 Involvement and the hierarchy of effects
If low involvement characterizes so much of purchasing, why have marketers focused on
complex decision making and brand loyalty? There are two reasons.
(1)it is easier to influence the consumer when the marketer assumes there is a cognitive
process of brand evaluation.
(2)complex decision making assumes a sequence or hierarchy of effects that stipulates
that consumers think before they act.

4.1.2 The low involvement hierarchy
The low involvement hierarchy stipulates that consumers may act without thinking.
Rather than searching for information, the consumer will receive information passively.
Low involvement hierarchy High involvement hierarchy
Brand beliefs are formed first by passive
learning
Brand beliefs are formed first by active
learning
A purchase decision is then made Brands are then evaluated
The brand may or may not be evaluated
afterwards
A purchase decision is made
Table 4.1 Low versus high involvement hierarchy
4.2 The four type of behavior summarized
Figure 4.1 summarizes the four types of behavior. In each case the behavioral
model,the underlying theory, and the decision process are listed.
4.3 Theories of low involvement consumer behavior
KRUGMANS THEORY OF PASSIVE LEARNING
MODEL
Beliefs
Behavior
THEORY
Low Involvement Decision Making
DECISION PROCESS
Inertia
MODEL
Behavior
Beliefs
Evaluation
THEORY
Dissonance or Attribution Theory
DECISION PROCESS
Dissonance Reduction or Attribution
MODEL
Beliefs
Behavior
Evaluation
THEORY
Low Involvement Decision Making
DECISION PROCESS
Variety Seeking
MODEL
Beliefs
Evaluation
Behavior
THEORY
Cognitive learning
DECISION PROCESS
Complex Decision Making or Brand
Loyalty
SIGNIFICANT
DIFFERENCE
S BETWEEN
BRANDS
FEW
DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN
BRANDS
HIGH INVOLVEMENT LOW INVOLVEMENT
Figure 4.1 A Classification of Four Types of Consumer Behavior
Much of the work on low involvement consumer behavior is based on Krugmans
perspective of television as an uninvolving medium. Krugman predicts that television
would be more effective for low involvement cases and print advertising for high
involvement cases. Krugmans view of a passive consumer has stood many of the
traditional behavioral concepts in marketing on their head. Table 4.2

SHERIFS SOCIAL JUDGMENT THEORY

A second theory that sheds additional light on the uninvolved consumer is Sherifs
theory of social judgment. Sherif describes an individuals position on an issue according
to that individuals involvement with the issue. Sherif then operationalizes this concept of
involvement by identifying a latitude of acceptance (the positions the individual accepts),a
latitude of rejection(positions the incivudual rejects), and a latitude of noncommitment
(positions toward which the individual is neutral). A highly involved individual having a
definite opinion about the issue would accept very few positions and reject a wide
number of positions (narrow latitude of acceptance and wide latitude of rejection). An
uninvolved individual would find more positions acceptable (wide latitude of acceptance)
or would have no opinion about the issue (wide latitude of noncommitment). Figure 4.2
describe applications of Sherifs theory to marketing.
Traditional, High Involvement View of an
Active Consumer
Newer, Low Involvement View of a Passive
Consumer
Consumers are information processors. Consumers learn information at random.
Consumers are information seekers. Consumers are information gathers.
Consumers represent an active audience for
advertising. As a result, the effect of
advertising on the consumer is weak.
Consumers represent a passive audience for
advertising. As a result, the effect of advertising on
the consumer is strong.
Consumers evaluate brands before buying. Consumers buy first. If they do evaluate brands, it is
done after the purchase.
Consumers seek to maximize expected
satisfaction. As a result, consumers compare
brands to see which provide the most benefits
related to needs and buy based on
multiattribute comparisons of brands.
Consumers seek some acceptable level of
satisfaction. As a result, consumers buy the brand
least likely to give them problems and buy based on a
few attributes. Familiarity is the key.
Personality and life-style characteristics are
related to consumer behavior because the
product is closely tied to the consumers
identity and belief system.
Personality and life-style characteristics are not
related to consumer behavior because the product is
not closely tied to the consumers identity and belief
system.
Reference groups influence consumer
behavior because of the importance of the
product to group norms and values.
Reference groups exert little influence on product
choice because products are unlikely to be related to
group norms and values.
Table 4.2 The High Involvement, Active Consumer Versus the Low Involvement, Passive Consumer
Consider many brands
and use a smaller
number of attributes to
evaluate each brand
Few brands will be evaluated using many attributes
Latitude of Acceptance
High
Low
High
Low
Low Involvement
High Involvement
Figure 4.2 Applications of Sherifs Theory to Marketing.
4.4 Strategic Issues in Low Involvement Decision Making
4.4.1 Marketing strategy

1.Advertising
(1)Advertising should focus on a few key points rather than a broad-based information
campaign.
(2)Advertising dollars should be spent in a campaign of high repetition and should use
short-duration messages.
(3)There is considerable leeway in the advertising messages acceptable to the
consumer.
(4)Visual components are more important influencing behavior.
(5)Advertising should be the primary means of differentiating the product from
competition.
(6)Television rather than print media should be the primary vehicle for communication.
2. Product positioning
Low involvement products are likely to be positioned to solve problems, while high
involvement products are more likely to be positioned to deliver benefits.
3.Price
Low involvement products are purchased on the basis on price alone, so a decrease
in price may be enough to influence the consumer.
4.Sales promotions
Sales incentives such as coupons, price deals, or free samples are likely to be more
important when the consumer is not involved.
5.In-store conditions
When the consumer is not involved with the product, brand choice is frequently
made in the store. So in-store conditions become important for low involvement
products. The brand at eye level or the one with the largest space may be purchased
simply because of the reminder effect.
6.Distribution.
Widespread distribution is important for low involvement products, because the
consumer does not search for a brand.
4.4.2Strategic Issues
1.Shift consumers from low to high involvement
(1)Linking the product to some involving issue.
(2)Linking the product to some involving personal situation.
(3)Linking the product to involving advertising.
(4)Changing the importance of product benefits
(5)Introducing an important characteristic in the product.
2.Shift consumers from inertia to variety seeking
If the brand is a market leader, it should encourage inertia; if it is a lesser known brand, it
should encourage variety seeking.
3.Should markets be segmented by degree of consumer involvement?
Choices
1.A low involvement decision model also involves a sequence of three steps. Place a___
next to the first step, a ___ next to the second, and a ___ next to the third.
A beliefs B intentions C behavior D need-arousal E evaluation
2.Buying by inertia generally involves
A high involvement and significant differences between brands
B high involvement and few differences between brands
C low involvement and significant differences between brands
D low involvement and few differences between brands
E none of the above
3.High involvement purchasing behavior does not involve one of the following
A consumer involvement B cognitive evaluation C passive learning D postpurchase
evaluation E information processing
4.According to Krugman, television encourage passive learning because
A the advertising is active while the viewer is passive
B both the advertising and the viewer are passive
C the viewer can control the pace of viewing
D the viewer is active while the advertising is passive
5.According to Sherifs theory of social judgement, a highly involved consumer would
have
A a narrow latitude of rejection
B a narrow latitude of acceptance
C a wide latitude of acceptance
D a wide latitude of rejection
6.Advertising in a low involvement situation is not likely to
A increase brand awareness
B increase brand trial
C increase in-store brand recognition
D change brand attitudes


1.Consumers are not highly involved with most products.
2.The primary basis for inducing trial under low involvement conditions is through price
and in-store promotional strategies.
3.Marketing strategies should be directed to minimizing consumer problems in the high
involvement case and to maximizing consumer benefits in the low involvement case.
4.The leading brand in a market should encourage variety-seeking behavior.

ANSWER
1 A C E 2 D 3 C 4 A 5 B 6 D 1T 2 T 3 F 4 F
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Chapter 5 Situational
Determinants of Consumer
Behavior
Chapter 5 Situational Determinants of
Consumer Behavior
5.1 The nature of situational variables
5.1.1 Type of situations

1.The Communications Situations

2.The Purchase Situation
(1)In-store situations
Price promotions
Free sample
Displays
(2)Gift-giving situations
(3)Unanticipated purchase situations

3.The Consumption Situation
The consumption situation is the anticipated usage situation for the brand.
5.1.2 Characteristics of consumption situations
1.The physical surrounding. For example, a stores decor and shelf layout; being
indoors or outside; being in a noisy room.
2.Social Surrounding. Whether guests are present, the social occasion, the
importance of friends and neighbors that are present.
3.Time. Breakfast, lunchtime, between meals; seasonal factors such as winter versus
summer relative to clothing; the time that has passed since the product was last
consumed.
4.Task definition. Shopping for oneself or for the family, shopping for a gift; cooking for
oneself, for the family or for guests.
5.Antecedent States. Momentary conditions such as shopping when tired or anxious,
buying a product on impulse because of an excess of cash on hand, using a product
when in an excited state.
5.2 A model of situational determinants
Decision
Making
SITUATION
PRODUCT
CONSUMER
PURCHASING
BEHAVIOR
Figure 5.1 A model of situational
determinants of consumer behavior
The situation versus the product
1.The greater the degree of brand loyalty, the less important are situational influence.
2.The higher the level of product involvement, the less likely it is that situational factors
will determine behavior.
5.3 Use of situational variables in marketing strategy
Situational variables have been used most frequently for positioning products and
segmenting markets.Several studies will be cited to illustrate the use of situational
factors for these strategic applications.
5.3.1 Induct the new condition
Wansick and Ray had analyzed how the advertisement drive consumers introducing the product
into new condition by expansion strategy. They found that advertisement can effectively suggest the
consumer to induct the new condition when the new use-occasion consistent with the exist
conception of how to use the product.

5.3.2 Take extant use condition as target market
(1)Subdivide the user based on product use
(2)Develop new product to meet the special situation
(3)Position product in the use of a particular situation though advertising
(4)Distribute product to meet the needs of the situation
Choices
1.Which of the following is not a situational variable
A nutritional orientation B a social occasion C being in a store
D between meals E shopping for a gift
2.Which of the following situational influences is most likely to influence behavior
A the consumption situation B the social situation
C the environment situation D the in-store situation
3.Which of the following is not a characteristic of a usage or purchase situation
A time B social surrounding C brand attitude
D antecedent states E physical surroundings
4.The theory that best explain the relative influence of product versus situation on
consumer behavior is
A dissonance theory B balance theory C attribution theory
D learning theory E assimilation/contrast theory
5.The situation eating a snack while working at home is made up of which of the
following situational characteristics
A social surrounding B task definition
C time D antecedent states
6.Price sensitive consumers are most likely to be influenced by
A the usage situations B the purchase situation
C product attributes D the communication situation
E peer group influences

1. The assumption in most multiattribute models is that brand attitudes are the same,
regardless of usage situation.
2. The greater the degree of brand loyalty, the more important are situational influence.
3. If a situation is close to behavior in time, then it is more likely to influence behavior.
4. Purchase situation variables are most likely to be defined by in-store conditions.

ANSWER
1 A 2 A 3 C 4 C 5 B 6 B 1 T 2 F 3 T 4 T

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CONSUMBE BEHAVIOR

Chapter 2 Complex Decision Making

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