Atmospheric Boundary Layers and Turbulence I: Wind Loading and Structural Response Lecture 6 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Atmospheric boundary layers and
turbulence I
Wind loading and structural response
Lecture 6 Dr. J.D. Holmes
Atmospheric boundary layers and turbulence
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (minutes)
W
i
n
d

s
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
153 metres 64 metres 12 metres
Wind speeds from 3 different levels recorded from a synoptic gale
Features of the wind speed variation :
Increase in mean (average) speed with height
Turbulence (gustiness) at each height level
Broad range of frequencies in the fluctuations
Similarity in gust patterns at lower frequencies
Mean wind speed profiles :
Logarithmic law
t
0
- surface shear stress

a
- air density
) (z, of function a is
dz
U d
0 a
z
u
-
= . constant
dz
U d
constant log . ) / 1 ( U + =
-
z u k
e
integrating w.r.t. z :
u
-
= friction velocity = \ (t
0
/
a
)
Logarithmic law
k = von Karmans constant (constant for all surfaces)
) (z/z log
k
u
(z) U
0 e
-
=
z
o
= roughness length (constant for a given ground surface)
logarithmic law - only valid for z >z
o
and z < about 100 m
Modified logarithmic law for very rough surfaces
(forests, urban)
z
h
= zero-plane displacement
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
o
h
e
z
z - z
log
k
u
(z) U
z
h
is about 0.75 times the average height of the roughness
logarithmic law applied to two different heights
or with zero-plane displacement :
( )
( )
o 2 e
o 1 e
2
1
/z z log
/z z log
) (z U
) (z U
=
| |
| |
o h 2 e
o h 1 e
2
1
)/z z (z log
)/z z (z log
) (z U
) (z U
=
Surface drag coefficient :
Non-dimensional surface shear stress :
from logarithmic law :
2
10
2
2
10
0
U
u
U
-
= =
t
k
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
o
e 10
z
10
log
k
u
U
2
10
log
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
o
e
z
k
k
Terrain types :
Terrain Type Roughness
Length (m)
Surface Drag
Coefficient
Very flat terrain (snow, desert) 0.001 - 0.005 0.002 0.003
Open terrain (grassland, few trees) 0.01 0.05 0.003 0.006
Suburban terrain (buildings 3-5 m) 0.1 0.5 0.0075 0.02
Dense urban (buildings 10-30 m) 1 5 0.03 0.3

Power law
o = changes with terrain roughness and height range
o
|
.
|
\
|
=
10
) (
10
z
U z U
|
|
.
|
\
|
~
) / ( log
1
0
z z
ref e
o
z
ref
= reference height
Matching of power and logarithmic laws :

0
20
40
60
80
100
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

z

(
m
)
Logarithmic law
Power law
z
o
= 0.02 m o = 0.128 z
ref
= 50 metres
Mean wind speed profiles over the ocean:
Surface drag coefficient (k) and roughness length (z
o
) vary with mean
wind speed
g

- gravitational constant

a

- empirical constant
substituting :
a lies between 0.01 and 0.02
g
U a
g
au
z
2
10
*
2
o
= =
(Charnock, 1955)
2
o
e
z
10
log
k
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
( )
2
o e
10
o
10/z log
U k
g
a
z
(
=
Implicit relationship between z
o
and U
10

Mean wind speed profiles over the ocean:
Assume

g = 9.81 m/s
2
;

a

= 0.0144 (Garratt) ; k =0.41
Applicable to non-hurricane conditions
U
10
(m/s)
Roughness Length (mm)
10 0.21
15 0.59
20 1.22
25 2.17
30 3.51

Relationship between upper level and surface winds :
Geostrophic drag coefficient
Rossby Number :
balloon measurements : C
g
= 0.16 Ro
-0.09

g
*
U
u
C =
g
o
g
fz
U
Ro =
(Lettau, 1959)
U
10, terrain 1
u
*,terrain 1
U
g
u
*,terrain 2
U
10, terrain 2
Log law Lettau Lettau Log law
Can be used to determine wind speed near ground level over different terrains :
Mean wind profiles in hurricanes :
Aircraft flights down to 200 metres
Sonic radar (SODAR) measurements in Okinawa
Drop-sonde (probe dropped from aircraft - tracked by satellite) : recently started
Tower measurements
not enough
usually in outer radius of hurricane and/or higher latitudes
Northern coastline of Western Australia
Exmouth
EXMOUTH
GULF
North
West Cape
US Navy
antennas
100 km
Profiles from 390 m mast in late nineteen-seventies
In region of maximum winds : steep logarithmic profile to 60-200 m
Nearly constant mean wind speed at greater heights
10
100
1000
0.0 1.0 2.0
U(z)/U(10)
H
e
i
g
h
t

z
,

(
m
)
) 3 . 0 / 10 ( log
) 3 . 0 / ( log
U U
10 z
e
e
z
=
for z < 100 m
U
z
=U
100
for

z > 100 m
Mean wind profiles in thunderstorms (downbursts) :
Doppler radar
Model of Oseguera and Bowles (stationary downburst):
Some tower measurements (not enough)
r - radial coordinate
R - characteristic radius
z
*
- characteristic height out of the boundary layer
c - characteristic height in the boundary layer
- scaling factor
( )
| |( )
z/ z/z r/R
2
e e e 1
2r
R
U
2

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
Horizontal wind profile shows peak at 50-100 m
Model of Oseguera and Bowles (stationary downburst) :
R = 1000 m
r/R = 1.121
z
*
= 200 metres
c = 30 metres
= 0.25 (1/sec)

0
200
400
600
0 20 40 60
Wind speed (m/s)
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
r/R = 1.121
Add component constant with height (moving downburst) :
R = 1000 m
r/R = 1.121
z
*
= 60 metres
c = 50 metres
= 1.3 (1/sec)
0
200
400
600
0 20 40 60 80 100
Wind speed (m/s)
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
U
const
= 35 m/s
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (minutes)
W
i
n
d

s
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
153 metres 64 metres 12 metres
Turbulence represents the fluctuations (gusts) in the wind speed
It can usually be represented as a stationary random process
Components of turbulence :
u(t) - longitudinal - parallel to mean wind direction
- parallel to ground (usually horizontal)
ground
U+u(t)
w(t) - right angles to ground (usually vertical)
w(t)
v(t) - parallel to ground - right angles to u(t)
v(t)
Turbulence intensities :
standard deviation of u(t) :
I
u
= o
u
/U (longitudinal turbulence intensity) (non dimensional)
| |
2
1
2
0
} ) (
1
{ dt U t U
T
T
u
}
= o
I
v
= o
v
/U (lateral turbulence intensity)
I
w
= o
w
/U (vertical turbulence intensity)
o
v
~ 2.2u
*

I
u
= o
u
/U
from logarithmic law
( ) ( ) ( )
0 e 0 e
z/z log
1
z/z log /0.4 u
2.5u
= =
-
-
( )
0 e
v
z/z log
0.88
I ~
o
w
~ 1.37u
*

( )
0 e
w
z/z log
0.55
I ~
near the ground, o
u
~ 2.5u
*

rural terrain, z
o
= 0.04 m :
Height, z (m)
I
u

2 0.26
5 0.21
10 0.18
20 0.16
50 0.14
100 0.13

Probability density :
for u(t) :
The components of turbulence (constantU) can generally be
represented quite well by the Gaussian, or normal, p.d.f. :
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
2
u
u
u
U u
2
1
exp
2
1
u f
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
v
v
v
v
2
1
exp
2
1
v f
for v(t) :
for w(t) :
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
w
w
w
w
2
1
exp
2
1
w f

End of Lecture 6

John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu

Atmospheric Boundary Layers and Turbulence I: Wind Loading and Structural Response Lecture 6 Dr. J.D. Holmes

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