Communication Theory

Unit 2
Lecture-1
1) Theory of FM signals
2) Mathematical Analysis
Theory of FM signals
Definition:
Changing the frequency of the carrier signal in
accordance with the amplitude of the message signal
Waveforms:
FM Derivation
Let the inputs be

Let the output be

. (1)
To find :
(2)


t w E e
t w E e
c c c
m m m
sin
cos
=
=
( ) ) sin(
mod
t w w E e
c c c
A + =
i c
E e | sin
mod
=
i
|
i
i
w
dt
d
=
|
m c i
e K w w . + =
FM Derivation
After expansion


For simplification, consider the maximum frequency shift which
occurs when cosine term is +1 (or) -1.


The above equation is equivalent to





t w E K w w
m m c i
cos . + =
m c i
E K w w . =
c c i
w w w A =
t 2
.
.
m
m c
E K
f
E K w
= A
= A
FM Derivation
Substituting, we get

Using equation (2)





Substituting in (1)

t w f w w
m c i
cos 2 A + = t
dt w
i i }
= |
( )
t w
w
f
t w
dt t w f w
m
m
c
m c
sin
2
cos 2
A
+ =
A + =
}
t
t
(

A
+ = t w
f
f
w E e
m
m
c c
sin sin
mod
Mathematical Analysis of FM



The above equation is the expression for FM signal. In the above
equation, the modulation index is given by


The modulation index is expressed as

(

A
+ = t w
f
f
w E e
m
m
c c
sin sin
mod
Mathematical Analysis of FM

The equation of the FM signal can be expanded using Bessel
functions as:


Expanding further, we get




Thus the number of terms in FM signal is infinite whereas in AM,
we have three components

+ + + +
+ + + =

+
t J V t J V
t J V t J V t J V t v
m c m c
m c m c
c
f f
m c c
f f
m c c
f f
m c c
f f
m c c
f
c c s
2 Amp
2
2 Amp
2
Amp
1
Amp
1
Amp
0
) 2 ( cos ) ( ) 2 ( cos ) (
) ( cos ) ( ) ( cos ) ( ) ( cos ) ( ) (
e e | e e |
e e | e e | e |
FM Signal Spectrum
The amplitudes drawn are completely arbitrary, since we have not found any value for
J
n
(|) this sketch is only to illustrate the spectrum.
Bessel chart
A sample:
Bandwidth of FM
Theoretical Bandwidth:
BW = infinite
Practical Bandwidth:

This equation is also called as Carsons rule

) ( 2 Bandwidth
m c
f f + A =
Narrowband and Wideband FM
From the graph/table of Bessel functions it may be seen that for small |, (| s 0.3)
there is only the carrier and 2 significant sidebands, i.e. BW = 2fm.

FM with | s 0.3 is referred to as narrowband FM (NBFM) (Note, the bandwidth is
the same as AM).
For | > 0.3 there are more than 2 significant sidebands. As | increases the number of
sidebands increases. This is referred to as wideband FM (WBFM).
Narrowband FM NBFM
Wideband FM WBFM
Communication Theory
Unit 2
Lecture-2
1) Comparison of AM and FM
AM FM
Origin
AM method of audio transmission was first
successfully carried out in the mid 1870s.
FM radio was developed in the United states
mainly by Edwin Armstrong in the 1930s.
Modulating
differences
In AM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or
"carrier wave" is modulated in amplitude by the
signal that is to be transmitted.
In FM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or
"carrier wave" is modulated in frequency by the
signal that is to be transmitted.
Importance
It is used in both analog and digital
communication and telemetry.
It is used in both analog and digital
communication and telemetry.
Pros and cons
AM has poorer sound quality compared to FM,
but is cheaper andcan be transmitted over long
distances. It has a smaller bandwidth so it can
have more stations available in any frequency
range.
FM is less prone to interference than AM.
However, FM signals are impacted by physical
barriers. FM has greater sound quality due to
higher bandwidth.
Stands for
AM stands for Amplitude Modulation FM stands for Frequency Modulation
Frequency Range
AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 KHz (OR) Up
to 1200 Bits per second.
FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum from 88
to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to 2400 bits per second.
Bandwidth
Requirements
Twice the highest modulating frequency. In AM
radio broadcasting, the modulating signal has
bandwidth of 15kHz, and hence the bandwidth
of an amplitude-modulated signal is 30kHz.
Twice the sum of the modulating signal
frequency and the frequency deviation. If the
frequency deviation is 75kHz and the
modulating signal frequency is 15kHz, the
bandwidth required is 180kHz.
Zero crossing in
modulated signal
Equidistant Not equidistant
Complexity
Transmitter and receiver are simple but
syncronization is needed in case of SSBSC AM
carrier.
Tranmitter and reciver are more complex as
variation of modulating signal has to
beconverted and detected from corresponding
variation in frequencies.(i.e. voltage to
frequency and frequency to voltage conversion
has to be done).
Noise
AM is more susceptible to noise because noise
affects amplitude, which is where information is
"stored" in an AM signal.
FM is less susceptible to noise because
information in an FM signal is transmitted
through varying the frequency, and not the
amplitude.
Communication Theory
Unit 2
Lecture-3
1) Generation of FM by direct method
(varactor diode modulator)
2) Indirect method of FM generation
Direct method of FM generation
In direct method, the change in frequency
(increase/decrease) is effected with the tuned
circuit



Change in capacitance can bring the necessary
changes, but how?
One type of direct method of FM generation is
Varactor diode modulator
LC
f
t 2
1
0
=
Varactor diode
Varactor diode is a semiconductor diode that is designed
to behave as a voltage controlled capacitor.
When a semiconductor diode is reverse biased, no
current flows and it consists of two conducting region
separated by a non-conducting region.
This is very similar to the construction of the capacitor.


17
Varactor Diode
By increasing the reverse biased voltage, the width of the
insulating region can be increased and hence the capacitance
value decreased.
Thus, if the info signal is applied to the varactor diode, the
capacitance will therefore be increased and decreased in
sympathy with the incoming signal.

- more capacitance.



- less capacitance.

C
V
1
=
d
A
C
c
=
Varactor Diode Modulator
Circuit Diagram
Tuned circuit sets the operating frequency of the oscillator
C1 is a DC blocking capacitor to provide DC isolation between
the oscillator and the collector of the transistor.
L1 is an RF choke which allows the info signal through to the
varactor but blocks the RF signals.
The info signal is applied to the base of the input transistor and
appears amplified and inverted at the collector.
This low freq signal passes through the RF choke (L1) and is
applied across the varactor diode.
The varactor diode changes its capacitance in sympathy with the
info signal and therefore changes the total value of the capacitance
in the tuned circuit.
The changing value of capacitance causes the oscillator freq to
increase and decrease under the control of the information signal.
The output is therefore an FM signal.
Varactor Diode Modulator
Operation
Indirect method of FM generation
Obtaining FM through change in Phase.
Block diagram:
Indirect method of FM generation
Operation:
Communication Theory
Unit 2
Lecture-4
1) Foster Seeley discriminator
2) Ratio detector
3) Balanced Slope Detector
Foster Seeley discriminator
Circuit diagram:



Foster Seeley Discriminator
Description and conditions:
Let v1 be the primary voltage and v2 be the secondary voltage
The primary voltage and the secondary voltage are out of
phase by 90 degree at the tuned frequency.
For further increase in frequency beyond 90 degree, the
secondary voltage moves towards the positive direction.
For further decrease in frequency below 90 degree, the
secondary voltage moves towards the negative direction.
The tuned frequency of this circuit is the carrier frequency.
The output of this circuit is VO=VD1-VD2
FS discriminator
Operation :



Ratio detector
Circuit Diagram:

Ratio Detector
Modified version of Foster Seeley Discriminator
The polarity of diode D2 is reversed.
Main advantage is the prevention of noise affecting the input
amplitude through a limiting action capacitor.
This limiting capacitor is placed at the output side and hence the
position where the actual output is taken is changed.
Case (1) when the input voltage is increased due to noise:
The capacitor value is very large and hence it immediately
accepts any increase in the input voltage and stores all the
excessive charges through Diode D1.
Case (2) when the input voltage is decreased due to noise:
The capacitor immediately discharges to supply for the shortage
of input voltage through Diode D2
Thus, a constant voltage is maintained in the input side
The rest of the operation is same as that of phase discriminator



Ratio Detector
Description and conditions:
Let v1 be the primary voltage and v2 be the secondary voltage
The primary voltage and the secondary voltage are out of
phase by 90 degree at the tuned frequency.
For further increase in frequency beyond 90 degree, the
secondary voltage moves towards the positive direction.
For further decrease in frequency below 90 degree, the
secondary voltage moves towards the negative direction.
The tuned frequency of this circuit is the carrier frequency.
The output of this circuit is VO=VD1-VD2
Ratio Detector
Operation :



Balanced Slope Detector
Circuit diagram:
Balanced Slope Detector
Description:
It is a frequency-voltage converter
Also called as Round Travis detector
It consists of two identical circuits connected back-to-back.
It consists of three tuned circuits each tuned to


Operation:
Case 1: When frequency =
The primary windings tuned circuit is activated
The other two tuned circuits are switched off.
Now, virtually there is no secondary winding.

f f f f f
c c c
A A + , ,
c
f
Balanced Slope Detector
Operation
Now the voltage of upper portion is +v and the lower portion is +v.
Thus the diode conducts equally.
But, the output voltage is the difference between the two diode
voltages.
Thus, output is zero
[Remember: In FM, for zero values of message signal, there is no
change in the carrier frequency]
Case 2: When frequency =
The primary windings tuned circuit is switched off
Now, virtually there is no primary winding.
T1 will be activated since it is tuned to
Now, diode D1 will conduct and the output is +ive

f f
c
A +
f f
c
A +
Balanced Slope Detector
Operation
Case 3: When frequency =
The primary windings tuned circuit is switched off
Now, virtually there is no primary winding.
T2 will be activated since it is tuned to
Now, diode D2 will conduct and the output is -ive

f f
c
A
f f
c
A
Balanced Slope Detector
Waveforms: (S-Curve)