Non-regular languages

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 n n
{a b : n ≥ 0}
Non-regular languages
R
{vv : v ∈ {a, b}*}

Regular languages
a *b b*c + a
b + c ( a + b) *
etc...
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How can we prove that a language L
is not regular?

Prove that there is no DFA that accepts L

Problem: this is not easy to prove

Solution: the Pumping Lemma !!!

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The Pigeonhole Principle

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 4 pigeons

3 pigeonholes

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A pigeonhole must
contain at least two pigeons

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 n pigeons

...........

m pigeonholes n>m

...........

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 The Pigeonhole Principle

n pigeons

m pigeonholes
There is a pigeonhole
n>m with at least 2 pigeons

...........

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The Pigeonhole Principle

and

DFAs

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 DFA with 4 states

b
b b

a b b
q1 q2 q3 q4
a a
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In walks of strings: a no state
aa is repeated

aab

b
b b

a a b
q1 q2 q3 q4
a a
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In walks of strings: aabb a state
bbaa is repeated

abbabb
abbbabbabb...
b
b b

a a b
q1 q2 q3 q4
a a
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If string w has length | w | ≥ 4:
Then the transitions of string w
are more than the states of the DFA

Thus, a state must be repeated

b
b b

a a b
q1 q2 q3 q4
a a
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 In general, for any DFA:

String w has length ≥ number of states

A state q must be repeated in the walk of w

walk of w
...... q ......
Repeated state 14
In other words for a string w:

a transitions are pigeons

q states are pigeonholes

walk of w
...... q ......
Repeated state
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The Pumping Lemma

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Take an infinite regular language L

There exists a DFA that accepts L

m
states

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Take string w with w∈ L

There is a walk with label w:

.........
walk w
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If string w has length | w| ≥ m (number
of states
of DFA)

then, from the pigeonhole principle:

a state is repeated in the walk w

...... q ......
walk w
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Let q be the first state repeated in the
walk of w

...... q ......
walk w
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Write w= x y z

...... q ......

x z 21
Observations: length | x y | ≤ m number
of states
length | y | ≥1 of DFA

...... q ......

x z 22
Observation: The string xz
is accepted

...... q ......

x z 23
Observation: The string xyyz
is accepted

...... q ......

x z 24
Observation: The string xyyyz
is accepted

...... q ......

x z 25
 i
In General: The string xy z
is accepted i = 0, 1, 2, ...

...... q ......

x z 26
In General: i
xy z ∈ L i = 0, 1, 2, ...

Language accepted by the DFA

...... q ......

x z 27
In other words, we described:

The Pumping Lemma !!!

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 The Pumping Lemma:
• Given a infinite regular language L
• there exists an integer m

• for any string w∈ L with length | w|≥ m

• we can write w= x y z

• with | x y | ≤ m and | y | ≥ 1
i i = 0, 1, 2, ...
• such that: xy z ∈ L
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 Applications

of

the Pumping Lemma

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 n n
Theorem: The language L = {a b : n ≥ 0}

is not regular

Proof: Use the Pumping Lemma

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 n n
L = {a b : n ≥ 0}

Assume for contradiction

that L is a regular language

Since L is infinite
we can apply the Pumping Lemma

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 n n
L = {a b : n ≥ 0}

Let m be the integer in the Pumping Lemma

Pick a string w such that: w∈ L

length | w|≥ m

m m
We pick w=a b
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 m m
Write: a b =xyz

From the Pumping Lemma

it must be that length | x y | ≤ m, | y |≥ 1
m m
m m
xyz = a b = a...aa...aa...ab...b
x y z
k
Thus: y = a , k ≥1
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 m m k
x y z=a b y = a , k ≥1

i
From the Pumping Lemma: xy z ∈ L
i = 0, 1, 2, ...

2
Thus: xy z ∈ L

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 m m k
x y z=a b y = a , k ≥1

2
From the Pumping Lemma: xy z ∈ L

m+k m
2
xy z = a...aa...aa...aa...ab...b ∈ L
x y y z

m+ k m
Thus: a b ∈L
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 m+ k m k≥ 1
a b ∈L

n n
BUT: L = {a b : n ≥ 0}

m+ k m
a b ∉L

CONTRADICTION!!!
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Therefore: Our assumption that L
is a regular language is not true

Conclusion: L is not a regular language

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 n n
Non-regular languages {a b : n ≥ 0}

Regular languages

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