Professional Documents
Culture Documents
= = +
<
2
Energy of s(t)
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
0
2
0
(Rayleigh's energy theorem)
2 (Conjugate symmetry of real ( ) )
E s t dt
S f df
S f df s t
S f df
=
=
=
=
}
}
}
}
Representation of bandpass LTI
System
( )
h t
( )
h t
( )
s t
( )
s t
( )
r t
( )
r t
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
because ( ) is band-limited.
c
r t s t h t
R f S f H f
S f H f f s t
= -
=
= +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
*
( ), 0
0, 0
c c
c
H f H f f H f f
H f f
H f
f
H f H f f
+
+
( = + +
>
<
= +
Key Ideas
Examples (1): BPSK
Examples (2): QPSK
Examples (3): QAM
Geometric Interpretation (I)
Geometric Interpretation (II)
I/Q representation is very convenient for some
modulation types.
We will examine an even more general way of
looking at modulations, using signal space concept,
which facilitates
Designing a modulation scheme with certain desired
properties
Constructing optimal receivers for a given modulation
Analyzing the performance of a modulation.
View the set of signals as a vector space!
Basic Algebra: Group
A group is defined as a set of elements G and a
binary operation, denoted by for which the
following properties are satisfied
For any element a, b, in the set, a b is in the set.
The associative law is satisfied; that is for a,b,c in
the set (a b) c= a (b c)
There is an identity element, e, in the set such that
a e= e a=a for all a in the set.
For each element a in the set, there is an inverse
element a
-1
in the set satisfying a a
-1
= a
-1
a=e.
Group: example
A set of non-singular nn matrices of
real numbers, with matrix multiplication
Note; the operation does not have to be
commutative to be a Group.
Example of non-group: a set of non-
negative integers, with +
Unique identity? Unique inverse fro
each element?
a x=a. Then, a
-1
ax=a
-1
a=e, so x=e.
xa=a
a x=e. Then, a
-1
ax=a
-1
e=a
-1
, so x=a
-1
.
Abelian group
If the operation is commutative, the group is
an Abelian group.
The set of mn real matrices, with + .
The set of integers, with + .
Application?
Later in channel coding (for error correction or
error detection).
Algebra: field
A field is a set of two or more elements
F={o,|,..} closed under two operations, +
(addition) and * (multiplication) with the
following properties
F is an Abelian group under addition
The set F{0} is an Abelian group under
multiplication, where 0 denotes the identity
under addition.
The distributive law is satisfied:
(o+|)- = o-+|-
Immediately following properties
o-|=0 implies o=0 or |=0
For any non-zero o, o-0= ?
o-0 + o = o-0 + o -1= o-(0 +1)= o-1=o;
therefore o-0 =0
0-0 =?
For a non-zero o, its additive inverse is non-zero.
0-0=(o+( o) )-0 = o-0+( o)-0 =0+0=0
Examples:
the set of real numbers
The set of complex numbers
Later, finite fields (Galois fields) will be
studied for channel coding
E.g., {0,1} with + (exclusive OR), * (AND)
Vector space
A vector space V over a given field F is a set of
elements (called vectors) closed under and operation +
called vector addition. There is also an operation *
called scalar multiplication, which operates on an
element of F (called scalar) and an element of V to
produce an element of V. The following properties are
satisfied:
V is an Abelian group under +. Let 0 denote the additive
identity.
For every v,w in V and every o,| in F, we have
(o-|)-v= o-(|-v)
(o+|)-v= o-v+|-v
o-( v+w)=o-v+ o -w
1*v=v
Examples of vector space
R
n
over R
C
n
over C
L
2
over
Subspace.
Let V be a vector space. Let be a vector space and .
If is also a vector space with the same operations as ,
then S is called a subspace of .
S is a subspace if
,
V S V
S V
V
v w S av bw S
c
e + e
Linear independence of vectors
1 2
Def)
A set of vectors , , are linearly independent iff
n
v v v V e
Basis
0
Consider vector space V over F (a field).
We say that a set (finite or infinite) is a basis, if
* every finite subset of vectors of linearly independent, and
* for every ,
it
B V
B B
x V
c
c
e
1 1
1 1
is possible to choose , ..., and , ...,
such that ... .
The sums in the above definition are all finite because without
additional structure the axioms of a vector
n n
n n
a a F v v B
x a v a v
e e
= + +
space do not permit us
to meaningfully speak about an infinite sum of vectors.
Finite dimensional vector space
1 2
1 2
A set of vectors , , is said to span if
every vector is a linear combination of , , .
Example:
n
n
n
v v v V V
u V v v v
R
e
e
Finite dimensional vector space
A vector space V is finite dimensional if there
is a finite set of vectors u
1
, u
2, ,
u
n
that span V.
Finite dimensional vector space
1 2
1 2
1 2
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space. Then
If , , are linearly independent but do not span , then
has a basis with vectors ( ) that include , , .
If , , span and but ar
m
m
m
v v v V V
n n m v v v
v v v V
-
>
-
1 2
e linearly dependent, then
a subset of , , is a basis for with vectors ( ) .
Every basis of contains the same number of vectors.
Dimension of a finiate dimensional vector space.
m
v v v V n n m
V
<
-
Example: R
n
and its Basis Vectors
- - -
Inner product space: for length and
angle
Example: R
n
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
Orthonormal set and projection
theorem
Def)
A non-empty subset of an inner product space is said to be
orthonormal iff
1) , , 1 and
2) If , and , then , 0.
S
x S x x
x y S x y x y
e < >=
e = < >=
Projection onto a finite dimensional
subspace
Gallager Thm 5.1
Corollary: norm bound
Corollary: Bessels inequality
Gram Schmidt orthonormalization
{ }
{ }
1
1
1 1
Consider linearly independent , ..., , and inner product space.
We can construct an orthonormal set , ..., so that
{ , ..., } , ...,
n
n
n n
s s V
V
span s s span
| |
| |
e
e
=
Gram-Schmidt Orthog. Procedure
Step 1 : Starting with s
1
(t)
Step 2 :
Step k :
Key Facts
Examples (1)
cont (step 1)
cont (step 2)
cont (step 3)
cont (step 4)
Example application of projection
theorem
Linear estimation
L
2
([0,T])
(is an inner product space.)
( )
| | ( )
2
Consider an orthonormal set
1 2
exp 0, 1, 2,... .
Any function ( ) in 0, is , . Fourier series.
For this reason, this orthonormal set is called complete
k
k k
k
kt
t j k
T
T
u t L T u u
t
|
| |
=
| |
= =
`
|
\ .
)
=
2
.
Thm: Every orthonormal set in is contained in some
complete orthonormal set.
Note that the complete orthonormal set above is not unique.
L
Significance? IQ-modulation and
received signal in L
2
( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( )
( )
{ }
{ }
2
2
3 4
, , 0,
span 2 cos 2 , 2 sin 2
Any signal in can be represented as ( ).
There exist a complete orthonormal set
2 cos 2 , 2 sin 2 , ( ), ( ),...
c c
i i
i
c c
r t s t N t L T
s t T f t T f t
L r t
f t f t t t
t t
|
t t | |
= + e
e
=
=
Theorem
Every orothonormal set in a Hilbert space is
contained in some complete orthonormal set.
Every non-zero Hilbert space contains a complete
orthonormal set.
(Trivially follows from the above.)
( non-zero Hilbert space means that the space has a non-zero element.
We do not have to assume separable Hilbert space.)
Reference: D. Somasundaram, A first course in functional analysis, Oxford, U.K.: Alpha Science, 2006.
Only for mathematicians.
(Separability is nice.)
Euivalent definitions
Def) is separable iff there exists a countable subset
which is dense in , that is, .
Def) is separable iff there exists a countable subset such that
,
H D
H D H
H D
x H
=
e there exists a sequence in convergeing to .
Thm: If has a countable complete orthonormal set, then is separable.
proof: set of linear combinations (loosely speaking)
D x
H H
with ratioanl real and imaginary parts. This set is dense (show sequence)
Thm: If is separable, then every orthogonal set is countable.
proof: normalize it. Distance between two orthonorma
H
l elements is 2. .....
Signal Spaces:
L
2
of complex functions
Use of orthonormal set
1 2
1 2
1 2 1 2
M-ary modulation { ( ), ( ),..., ( )}
Find orthonormal functions ( ), ( ),.., ( ) so that
{ ( ), ( ),..., ( )} { ( ), ( ),.., ( )}
M
K
M K
s t s t s t
f t f t f t
s t s t s t span f t f t f t c
Examples (1)
2
T
2
T
Signal Constellation
cont
cont
cont
QPSK
Examples (2)
Example: Use of orthonormal set and
basis
Two square functions
Signal Constellation
Geometric Interpretation (III)
Key Observations
Vector XTMR/RCVR Model
| ( )
1
t
| ( )
1
t
| ( )
2
t
| ( )
2
t
r = s + n
1 1 1
s
1
Vector
RCVR
Vector
XTMR
Waveform channel / Correlation
Receiver
s(t)
n(t)
r(t) s
2
s
N
r = s + n
2 2 2
r = s + n
N N N
| ( )
N
t
| ( )
N
t
s(t)
n(t)
r(t) = s(t) + n(t)
0
T
z
0
T
z
0
T
z
}
}
i 1 =
i 1
N
=
|( ) , | |
i i j
t i = j
|( )
i
t
s
i
n
i
s(t) =
n(t) =
A
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.