Adriana Tortoriello

October 2013

Sender

Receiver

Message

Purpose

Katharina Reiss

Hans Vermeer

Christiane Nord

Vermeer (1978) laid the foundations of the Skopos
Theory with his 1978 essay, A framework for a general
theory of translation (Snell-Hornby 2006:51)

A central idea of the essay was that the aim and
purpose of a translation is determined by the needs
and expectations of the reader in his culture. Vermeer
called this the skopos, and the so-called faithfulness
to the original, equivalence in fact, was subordinated
to this skopos. (Kussmaul 2004, quoted in Snell-
Hornby 2006: 51)




What is equivalence in TS, and whats wrong
with it?

Two seminal definitions, Nidas Formal
Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence:



FORMAL equivalence: a type of equivalence
that focuses attention on the message itself, in
both form and content *+ One is concerned
that the message in the receptor language
should match as closely as possible the different
elements in the source language. (Nida 1964:
159)

This type of equivalence aims at reproducing the
Source Language surface structures as closely as
possible.

DYNAMIC equivalence: a type of equivalence
that is based on the principle of equivalent
effect, where the relationship between *TL+
receptor and message should be substantially
the same as that which existed between the
original receptors and the message. (ibid)

A translation should be producing a similar
response in the target audience as it did in the
source audience (if a text is meant to make you
laugh in SL, it should still make you laugh in TL).

Excessive focus on ST (sacred?)
Hard to define equivalence relationship
between ST and TT (form, meaning, style,
desired effect?)
Same receivers vs different receivers;
same function vs different functions

ST: destined to the source culture; TT: destined
to function in a different culture (target culture)

Source and target texts may diverge from
each other quite considerably, not only in the
formulation and distribution of the content
but also as regards the goals which are set for
each, and in terms of which the arrangement
of the content is in fact determined.
(Vermeer 1989, in Venuti 2004:229)

SKOPOS = Greek for aim, purpose

The aim or purpose of the translation becomes
the main focus

The receiver of the TT is of paramount
importance in determining its skopos


Translation: not just transferring meaning
from text A to text B

Translation = an act of communication

Hence, there is always an intended receiver
Vermeer: action-oriented approach (translation as a type
of human action)

Along very similar lines: Justa Holz-Mantari and the
Theory of Action (1984)

An action: intentional (the result of a choice) and
purposeful behaviour that takes place in a given situation
which is embedded in a given cultural context

For an act of behaviour to be called an action the person
performing it must (potentially) be able to explain why
he acts as he does although he could have acted
otherwise. (Vermeer 1989:176, in Nord 1997: 19)



If the behaviour involves at least two participants,
then that action can be called interaction.

Human communication = a form of interpersonal
interaction, i.e. a form of action, intentional and
purposeful, that involves two or more participants

And it is defined as communicative when it involves
SIGNS, which are produced intentionally by one
agent (the SENDER) and are directed towards
another agent (the RECEIVER).




NB: signs are conventional and thus culture-
specific (Nord 1997: 23)

Definition of culture by US ethnologist Ward
Goodenough (1964: 36, in Nord 2005: 869)

A societys culture consists of whatever it is one has
to know or believe in order to operate in a manner
acceptable to its members, and do so in any role
that they accept for any one of themselves.

Culture is not part of ones biological heritage: it
needs to be learnt.


Communicative interaction takes place in
culturally determined situations expectations
and knowledge of participants.

If the cultural situation of sender and receiver
overlap, communication can (usually) take place.

Comprehension relies not only on what is said
or written in a given text but also on the previous
knowledge and expectations of the recipients
(Nord 2005: 868)






When the participants in the communicative interaction
belong to different cultures, they need the help of a
mediator in order to communicate.

Role of the TRANSLATOR as MEDIATOR

Translation = MEDIATED INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION.

Translator = the mediator who will bridge the gap
between situations where differences in verbal and non-
verbal behaviour, expectations, knowledge and
perspectives are such that there is not enough common
ground for the sender and the receiver to communicate
effectively by themselves. (Nord 1997:17)
Translation as a form of mediated intercultural
communication (Nord 1997:18)
Translation = an intentional, interpersonal,
intercultural interaction based on a source
text

Translational action without a source text:
the translator, as an expert, acts, e.g., as a
language consultant.
Translation Services
There is an ever-growing need for cross cultural
communications. Spry Translations LLC takes great pride in
doing our part to help our clients communicate globally. We
offer a variety of services to aid in precisely conveying and/or
receiving your message. These language services include, but
are not limited to:

Translation: We translate a wide range of documents into and
from English. Our highly skilled professional translators are
ready to take on any project you may have.

Editing: Our editors are available to review previously
translated documents or even monolingual originals.

Localization: We work side-by-side with you to ensure that
the right message is conveyed to your target audience. This
can take multiple forms including non-linguistic consultation,
such as the popularity of items in a foreign country and
cultural reception to your message.
[From: http://www.sprytranslations.com/services.php]

Any form of translational action, including
therefore translation itself, may be conceived
as an action, as the name implies. Any action
has an aim, a purpose. [] The word skopos,
then, is a technical term for the aim or
purpose of a translation.
(Vermeer 1989 in Venuti 2004: 227)

An action leads to a result, a new situation or event,
and possibly to a new object. Translational action
leads to a target text. (ibid)


The source text gets de-throned.

According to Reiss & Vermeer (1984), a Source Text
is nothing but an offer of information to a source
audience: the Target Text thus becomes an offer of
information (to a target audience) about the
original offer of information.

Major shift (focus on TT and its receivers): to
translate means to produce a text in a target
setting for a target purpose and target addressees
in target circumstances (Vermeer 1987, in Nord
1997:12).

The translator, says Vermeer, is an expert in
translational action. He or she is therefore
responsible for the performance of the
commissioned task.
(Vermeer 1989, in Venuti 2004: 228)

It is up to him to decide, for instance, what
role a source text plays in his translational
action. The decisive factor here is the
purpose, the skopos, of the communication
in a given situation. (ibid)

The main agents in the translation process:

INITIATOR

COMMISSIONER

TRANSLATOR
Initiator: the person / company who needs the
translation

Commissioner: the person / agency / company who
commissions the translation (for a given purpose and a
given addressee)

TRANSLATOR: as an expert in translatorial action, the
translator is responsible for the production of a target
text that is functional, i.e. that is in accordance with the
skopos of the translation (and with the translation brief)

Negotiation with commissioner, offer of expert advice
The brief should (explicitly or implicitly) contain
information about:

The intended text function(s)
The TT receiver(s)
The time and place of text reception
The medium through which the text will be
transmitted
The motive [reason] for the production or
reception of the text
(Nord 1997: 60)

The brief does NOT give any indications as to
the translation strategies that the translator
should implement

Unfortunately Clients do not normally bother
to give the translator an explicit translation
brief; not being experts in intercultural
communication, they often do not know that a
good brief spells a better translation. (Nord
1997: 30)

Creative Brief
CAMPAIGN MESSAGE
To communicate a technology breakthrough in the market place, so anyone
considering a high end home cinema projector has Epson on the top of their shopping
list.

CREATIVE IDEA
The creative idea is all about communicating the contrast between black and white
with the contrast between tones in films. Dark and light, good and evil.
The Home Cinema ads seek to dramatise the difference between black and white
with a filmic, dramatic tonality. Epson have deliberately chosen the font, copy and in
the case of the banners the animation, to communicate this contrast.
The copy should evoke the polarities of good and evil the contrast between the two
must be retained. Phrases that represent purity and corruption would be appropriate:
Black: bone chilling, night stalking
Black notes; Black references should be sinister and suggestive, but they should not
be murderous or explicit. As with all the best Hitchcock thrillers, the greatest drama is
evoked by what goes unseen, but imagined, rather than what is shown explicitly
White: pure as snow, bird song
White notes: The white references should be about innocence and naivity.
Please focus on cinematic references where possible.


TARGET AUDIENCE
Early adopter males between 30 and 50. These people are tech geeks and are
likely to have done a lot of research before buying a new projector. The
product will normally be demonstrated to them ahead of purchase in the
shop and many will have a specifically designed cinema room in their homes.
They mainly use the projector for films however they may also use it for
watching sport

WHAT DO WE WANT THE TARGET AUDIENCE TO BELIEVE/FEEL?
Epson high end home cinema projectors offer the best projection quality.
Epson are a lead brand in high end home projector sector.

IMPORTANT:
The preference is for the localised copy to stay close to the English in
meaning, unless it does not make sense in your market. You do however
have the creative freedom to come up with a localised version that comes
close to the English original. In other words, we are not looking for literal
translations of the English but strong, viable options for your market.





Adriana Tortoriello
November 2013
Skopos Theory = a target-oriented translation
theory

The source text is de-throned

Translation is a form of MEDIATED
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Major determinants in the translation process:
TT skopos and TT addressee(s)
Translation as a form of mediated intercultural
communication (Nord 1997:18)
Grundlegung einer allgemeine Translationtheorie
(Reiss & Vermeer 1984):

A TT is determined by its Skopos
A TT is a message in a target culture/TL concerning
a message in a source culture/SL
A TT is not clearly reversible (no back translation)
A TT must be internally coherent
A TT must be coherent with the ST
The order of the rules is hierarchical
The purpose of the TT is the main determinant for
the chosen translation strategies.

These strategies are used to produce a functionally
appropriate result: the translation should function
in the situation in which it will be used and for the
people who use it.

This rule allows the translator to go beyond the
faithful / free dichotomy (the formal / dynamic
equivalence dichotomy): depending on the skopos,
a translation will be more literal, free, creative etc.

A TT is an offer of information in a target
culture and a TL, which is based on an offer of
information (the ST) in a source culture and SL.

The meaning or function of a text is not
something inherent in the linguistic signs * +.
A text is made meaningful by its receiver and
for its receiver. *+ We might even say that
there are as many texts as there are receivers.
(Nord 1997: 31)

A TT is not clearly reversible: the function
of the TT does not necessarily match the
function of the ST.

A back-translation might not lead to a
text which is similar to the original ST.

Internal coherence: the TT must be
coherent for the TT receivers. The receiver
must be able to understand the TT, and the
TT has to be meaningful in the
communicative situation and target culture.

A TT must be coherent with the ST: there must
be coherence between the ST information
received by the translator, the interpretation
the translator gives to this information and the
information that is encoded for the TT
receivers, i.e., intertextual coherence.

NOTE: because of the hierarchical order (rule
six), intertextual coherence is considered less
important than internal coherence.

ADEQUACY = a dynamic concept, as opposed
to equivalence which is seen as a static
concept: adequacy refers to the qualities of a
target text with regards to the translation
brief i.e., the translation must be ADEQUATE
to the requirements of the brief.

In the translational action we find a goal-
oriented selection of signs that are considered
appropriate for the communicative purpose
defined in the translation assignment.
(Reiss 1983/1989, in Nord 1997: 35)

Bhlers (1934) model of the functions of
language:

REPRESENTATIONAL
related to the description of extralinguistic reality,
hence factual

EXPRESSIVE
related to the senders feelings about the described
reality

APPELLATIVE
aimed at achieving a response in the receiver

Reiss text types: informative, expressive and
operative

INFORMATIVE: texts that aim at informing the
reader about facts / phenomena of the real world

EXPRESSIVE: the main component is not
informative but rather aesthetic

OPERATIVE: both content and form depend on the
extralinguistic effect that the text is meant to
achieve
Informative: the translator should attempt to give a
correct and complete representation of the source
texts content and should be guided, in terms of
stylistic choices, by the dominant norms of the
target language and culture. (Nord 1997: 38)

Expressive: The stylistic choices of the SL author
contribute to the meaning of the SL text: In this
case, stylistic choices in translation are naturally
guided by those made in the source text. (ibid.)

Operative: translators should try and achieve the
same sort of reaction in the target audience this
might involve changing some of the content and
stylistic features of the original.


A translator will make his/her decisions in
terms of the best translation strategies to
adopt on the basis of the predominant
characteristics of a text

An operative text can be also expressive;
an expressive text can be also informative.
An OVERT type of
translation is required
A.1. A US President speech
during an electoral campaign

A.2. A literary text, whose value
is recognised as part of a given
nations cultural heritage

A COVERT type of
translation is required
B.1. An advert for a well-known
brand of soap

B.2. A communication of a CEO
to all the employees of an
international company


Texts that require an OVERT translation:

Historically linked (A1)
Timeless (A2)
(House 1977: 106)

In both cases, the TT readers will be allowed to
eavesdrop, ie they will be enabled to appreciate the
original textual function, albeit at a distance. (House
2001: 250)

The role of the translator: give target culture members
access to the original text and its cultural impact on
source culture members [and put] target culture
members in a position to observe and to judge this text
from outside. (ibid).


A COVERT translation: a translation which enjoys the
status of an original ST in the target culture (House
1977:107) as in the case of B1 and B2.

In this case true functional equivalence is aimed at,
and therefore the original may be manipulated at the
level of Language/Text and Register via the use of a
cultural filter. The result may be a very real distance
from the original. (House 2001: 250)

Cultural filter: a way of identifying differences in
conventions of behaviour and communication,
preferred rhetorical styles and expectation norms in the
two cultural communities (ibid)
Translators as cultural mediators; but
translation can go either way:

There might be situations in translation
where it is essential to bridge the cultural
gap and others where the translator is
supposed to leave the gap open, insisting on
the cultural distance between source and
target culture, but making the other culture
accessible by explaining its otherness.
(Nord 2005: 870)

A DOCUMENTARY translation is one that aims at
producing in the target language a kind of
document of (certain aspects of) a communicative
interaction in which a source-culture sender
communicates with a source-culture audience via
the source text under source-culture conditions.
(Nord 1997: 47)

cf Houses OVERT translation

Documentary translation: the target text will
focus on one or more aspects of the source
text.

Examples: interlinear, literal or philological
translations, that might be used, e.g., for
teaching purposes.


INSTRUMENTAL translation: a translation
that aims at producing in the target
language an instrument for a new
communicative interaction between the
source-culture sender and a target-culture
audience, using (certain aspects of) the
source text as a model. (Nord 1997:47)

Instrumental: equifunctional,
heterofunctional, homologous.
Equifunctional: same function is preserved (e.g., instruction
manual, book of recipes)

Heterofunctional: TT has a different function from ST (e.g.,
classic novels translated for children, where certain
references need to be adapted for a different audience)

Homologous: the ST and the TT have a similar sort of status
in their respective cultural contexts (e.g. poetry translated
by a poet).

In all these cases the common feature is that readers
are not supposed to be aware they are reading a
translation at all. The form of the text is thus usually
adapted to target-culture norms and conventions (Nord
1997:52) => cf Houses COVERT translation



Is this really a Machiavellian
theory of translation?

Functionalism creates mercenary experts, able to fight
under the flag of any purpose able to pay them (Pym in
Nord 2007:7)

The end justifies the means, therefore the translation
purpose justifies the translation procedures and all sorts
of manipulations of the ST

And the source text is all but forgotten

Not all actions are intentional and purposeful / not all
translations are intentional and purposeful

The Skopos theory cannot be applied to literary
translation (art is not necessarily purposeful and
intentional)
Clip a: Animal Farm
Clip b: Fry and Laurie Tricky Linguistics
Clip c: Rupert reviews his pictures

TEXT TYPE?
SKOPOS?
ADDRESSEE(S)?
Translation strategies?
Domesticate / foreignise
Keep, adapt or lose cultural references?
.
House, Juliane 1997. A model for assessing translation quality. META 22 (2): 103-
109.
------ 2001. Translation quality assessment: linguistic description versus social
evaluation. META 46 (2): 243-257.
Nida, Eugene 1964. Towards a Science of Translating. Leiden: Brill.
Nord, Christiane 1997. Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Manchester: St. Jerome.
------ 2005. Making otherness accessible. Functionality and skopos in the translation
of New Testament texts. META 50 (3): 868-880.
------ 2007. Function plus loyalty: ethics in professional translation. Gnesis. Revista
Cientfica do ISAG, 2007/6: 7-17.
Reiss, Katharina 1983 (1989). Adequacy and equivalence in translation. The Bible
Translator (Technical Papers) 3: 301-308.
Reiss, Katharina and Hans J. Vermeer 1984. Grundlegung einer allgemeinen
Translationstheorie. Tbingen: Niemeyer.
Snell-Hornby, Mary 2006. The Turns of Translation Studies. Amsterdam &
Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Vermeer, Hans J. 1987. What does it mean to translate? Indian Journal of Applied
Linguistics 13 (2): 25-33.
------ 1989. Skopos and commission in translational action, in Chesterman, Andrew
(ed.) Readings in Translation. Helsinki: Oy Finn Lectura Ab, 173-187. Now also in
Venuti, Lawrence (ed.) 2004. The Translation Studies Reader, Second Edition.
New York & London: Routledge.