SHAHRUL ISMAIL, DESc.

University College of Science and Technology Malaysia

CHAPTER 3:
Environmental Microbiology


Water
Treatment
Process :
Flocculation
Flocculation theory
TYPES
MECHANICAL
DEVICES
HYDRAULIC
METHODS
FLOCCULATION - TYPES
Vertical-shaft,
turbine-type
impeller
Horizontal-shaft
paddle
In-line jet rapid mixing
device
Rotating blade flocculators
Horizontal paddle
flocculator
Vertical paddle
flocculator

Baffled chamber flocculator
CLARI-FLOCCULATOR
Temp (C) Density (kg/m
3
)
100 958.4
80 971.8
60 983.2
40 992.2
30 995.6502
25 997.0479
22 997.7735
20 998.2071
15 999.1026
10 999.7026
4 999.9720
0 999.8395
10 998.117
20 993.547
30 983.854
The density of water in kilograms per cubic metre (SI unit)
at various temperatures in degrees Celsius.
The values below 0 C refer to supercooled water.
Density of water (at 1 atm)
Drag force and Coefft. Of Drag
1. In fluid dynamics, drag (fluid resistance) refers to forces
that oppose the relative motion of an object through
a fluid.

2. The drag equation calculates the force experienced by an
object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity
(i.e. high Reynolds number,R
e
> ~1000)

3. The power required to overcome the aerodynamic drag is given by:
4. Power = Drag force X Velovity

5. In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient s a dimensionless
quantity that is used to quantify the drag or resistance of
an object in a fluid environment such as air or water.
6. It is used in the drag equation, where a lower drag
coefficient indicates the object will have
less aerodynamic orhydrodynamic drag. The drag
coefficient is always associated with a particular surface
area.
[1]

S.
N
o
Parameters Flash Mixer Flocculator
1. Detention time 20- 60 s 10 - 40 min
2. Tank depth 3 4.5 m 3 4.5 m
3. Peripheral velocity of
paddles (paddle tip vel.)
1.75 2 m/s 0.2 0.6 m/s
4. Velocity gradient, G

> 300 (1/s)


10 75 (1/s)
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FLASH MIXER & FLOCCULATOR
S.No Parameters Value
1. Detention time 10 - 40 min
2. Tank depth 3 4.5 m
3. Total area of paddles 10 25% of CS area
of tank
4. Peripheral velocity of paddles 0.2 0.6 m/s
5. Velocity gradient, G

In tapered flocculation,
I stage
II stage
III stage
10 75 (1/s)


100 (1/s)
50 60 (1/s)
< 20 (1/s)
6. Dimensionless parameter, Gt

For Alum coagulants
For Ferric coagulants
10
4
- 10
5


2 6 x 10
4

1 1.5 x 10
4


DESIGN CRITERIA FOR MECHANICAL FLOCCULATOR
S.No Parameters Value
7. Power consumption 10 36 KW/MLD
8. Velocity of flow:

i) From rapid mixing unit
to flocculator

ii) Through flocculation basin

iii) From flocculation basin to
settling tank through pipe or
channel (to prevent settling
or breaking of flocs)


0.45 0.9 m/s


0.2 0.8 m/s




0.15 0.25 m/s
Step 1 Design of Influent Pipe
Assume velocity of flow through pipe and use continuity
eqn. to find Diameter of pipe
V = 1 m/s (assume)
Q = A V
255.1 (m
3
/h)= (D
2
/4) (1 x 3600)
D = 0.24 m
Provide an influent pipe of 300 mm diameter.
Step 2 Design of flocculator
1) Assume G & t, calculate Gt.
2) If Gt is ok, calculate volume of flocculator (V = QxDT)
3) Assume water depth & from volume, obtain plan area
of flocculator (V = A x Depth)
4) From area of flocculator, obtain tank diameter.

Step 2 Design of flocculator
Provide a tank diameter of 6.6 m.
G = 40 (1/s) (assume)
t = 20 min (assume)
G t =
=
40 (1/s) (20 x 60) (s)
4.8 x 10
4
(Hence Ok)
V =
=
255.1 (m
3
/h) (20/60) (h)
8.5 m
3

Water depth = 2.5 m (assume)
Plan area of floccualator = 8.5/2.5 = 34 m
2
Let D = Diameter of flocculator
D
p
= Diameter of inlet pipe
/4 (D
2
D
p
2
) = 34 m
2

D = 6.58 m
Step 3 Dimensions of Paddles
Approach:

1) Calculate power input to flocculator (P = G
2
V)

2) Calculate area of paddles (P = C
D
A
p
V
r
3
)
3) Check total area of paddles = 10 25% of CS area of tank.

4) Find out no. of paddles & paddle dimension (HeightxWidth)

5) Find out no. of shafts to support paddles.

6) Calculate the distance of shaft from the center line of
flocculator

7) Calculate the distance of paddle edge from the center line of
vertical shaft (V = 2 rn/60), assume no. of revolutions of
paddles.




Step 3 Dimensions of Paddles
8) Assume velocity of water below partition wall between
Flocculator & clarifier and use continuity eqn (Q = A V)
for calculating Area of opening required below the
partition wall. Finally calculate depth below partition
wall.

9) Calculate depth to be provided for sludge storage (as
25% additional depth)

10)Calculate total depth of tank at partition wall,
assuming free board.
Total Area of Paddles (A
p
)
Provide a tank diameter of 6.6 m.
P =

=

P =
G
2
V

(0.89x10
-3
) (40)
2
(x6.6
2
x2.5/4)

122 W
P = C
D
A
p
V
r
3

C
D
=

1.8 (assume)
@ 25 C =

997 Kg/m
3
V
r
= (0.75 x Vel. Of tip of blades)
Vel. Of tip of blades = 0.4 m/s (assume)

V
r
=
=
0.75 x o.4
0.3 m/s
122 W = x 1.8 x 997 x A
p
x (0.3)
3
A
p
= 5.04 m
2

Total Area of Paddles (A
p
)
CS Area of flocculator = (6.6 0.3) 2.5
(Total area of paddles /
CS Area of tank) =

=

5.04 / (6.6 0.3) 2.5

10.2% (Hence ok)
Provide 8 no. of paddles of height 2 m & width
0.32 m
Total Area of Paddles (A
p
)
No. of shafts = 2 (each shafts will
support 4 paddles)
Dis. Of shaft from centre line of
flocculator =

=


(6.6 0.3) / 4

1.58 m
n (paddles) = 4 rpm
Dis. Of paddle edge (r) from center
line of vertical shaft, V =

0.4 =

r =

2rn / 60

2r4 / 60

1 m
Total depth of tank @ partition wall
Vel. Of water below partition wall bt.
Flocculator & clarifier =

0.3 (m/min) (assume)
Area of opening required below
partition wall, Q =

250 (m
3
/h)=

A =


A V

A x (0.3x60) (m/h)

13.9 m
2
Depth below partition wall =
=
13.9 / (x6.6)
0.67 m
Depth provided for sludge storage =
=

Total depth of tank assuming a free
board of 0.3 m =
=
0.25 x 2.5 (25% extra)
0.63 m


0.3+2.5+0.67+0.63
4.1 m
Design of Clarifier
1) Assume SLR, calculate Dia. Of clariflocculator
2) Calculate length of weir & check weir loading rate.
SLR = 40 m
3
/m
2
/day (assume)
SA of clarifier =
=
(255.1 (m
3
/day) x 24) / 40 (m
3
/m
2
/day)
153.06 m
2
/4 (D
cf
2
6.6
2
) = 153.06 m
2

D
cf
= 15.44 m
Length of weir =
=
x 15.44
48.53 m
Weir loading =

=

<
255.1 x 24 (m
3
/day) (1/48.53 (m) )

126 .2 (m
3
/day.m)

300 (m
3
/day.m) (OK)
SEDIMENTATION
It is the separation from water by gravitational settling
of SS that are heavier than water.

The most commonly used in water treatment.

Factors influencing settling are:

1) Size, shape, density & nature of particles
2) Viscosity, density & temp. of water
3) SLR
4) Velocity of flow
5) Inlet and outlet arrangements
5) Detention time
6) Effective depth of settling zone
TYPES OF SS
1. Finely divided silt, silica & clay having specific gravity
ranging from 2.65 for sand, 1.03 for flocculated mud
particles containing 95% water.


2. Alum & Iron flocs, specific gravities range from 1.18 -
1.34


3. Precipitated crystals of calcium carbonate, obtained
from lime soda softening. Their specific gr. is 2.7 with
particle size 15 20 m
SETTLING VEL. OF DISCRETE PARTICLES
The following equations may be used in arriving at settling
vel. Of discrete spherical particles:
1) Stokes law (Laminar):

V
s
= g/18 ((
s
)/) d
2
) , N
R
= 1, 0.1 mm particle size

2) Hazens (Transition):

V
s
= [4/3 (g/C
D
((
s
)/)]
0.5
, N
R
= 1 1000, 0.1 1mm
particle size

3) Newtons (Turbulent):

V
s
= [3.3 g ((
s
)/) d ]
0.5
, N
R
= 10
3
10
4
, greater
than 1 mm particle size

SETTLING VEL. OF DISCRETE PARTICLES
C
D
-> dimensionless drag coefficient

C
D
= (24/N
R
) + (3/N
R
) + 0.34

N
R
= Reynolds No. = V
s
d/
(dimensionless)
Types of tanks
Horizontal flow tanks or vertical flow tanks on the basis
of direction of flow of water in the tanks.

Rectangular, Square, Circular in plan.


Horizontal flow tanks
1) Radial flow circular tank with central feed:
-> Water enters at the centre of the tank
-> Through openings in the circular well in the centre of
the tank, it flows radially outwards in all directions
equally.
-> Horizontal vel. decreases as water flows towards
periphery
-> sludge is taken to central sump mechanically

2) Radial flow circular tanks with peripheral feed:
-> Water enters the tank from periphery

3) Rectangular tanks with longitudinal flow

4) Rectangular tanks with longitudinal flow where sludge is
mechanically scrapped to sludge pit located near influent
end.
Vertical flow tanks
They combine sedimentation with flocculation.

They are square or circular in plan

Influent enters bottom of the unit, where flocculation
takes place

Upflow vel. decreases with increased CS area of the
tank.

There is a formation of blanket of floc through which
rising floc must pass.

It is also known as Sludge Blanket Clarifier.

The clarified water is withdrawn through circumferential
weir.
CLARI-FLOCCULATORS
2 Or 4 flocculating paddles placed.

The paddles rotate on their vertical axis.

Paddles may be rotor-stator type, rotating in opposite
direction around this vertical axis.

Clarification unit is served by inwardly raking rotating
blades.

Flocculated water passes out from bottom of flocculation
tank to clarifying zone through a wide opening, the area of
opening being large enough to maintain a very low velocity.

Clear effluent overflows into the peripheral launders.
Tank Dimensions
Rectangular tank upto 30 m length.

L to W ration = 3:1 to 5:1

Circular tanks upto 60 m in dia are in use, but upto 30 m
better to reduce wind effects.

Square tanks upto 20 m

Depths = 2.5 5 m (preferably 3 m)

Bottom slopes vary from 1% in rectangular tanks to 8%
in circular tanks.

The slopes of sludge hoppers range from 1.2:1 to 2:1
SLR & DT



TANK TYPE

SLR (m
3
/m
2
/d)



DT (h)


Particles
normally
removed
Range
Typical
value
for
design

Range

Typical
value
for
design

Plain
sedimentation
Upto
6000
15
30
0.01
15
3 4 Sand, slit &
clay
Horizontal flow
(circular)
25
75
30
40
2 8 2 2.5 Alum & Iron
floc
Vertical flow
(Upflow)
clarifiers

-
40
50

-
1 1.5 Flocculent
Inlets & Outlets
To obtain uniform vel. of flow, water is passed through
dispersion perforated by holes/slots.

Vel. Of flow through slots = 0.2 0.3 m/s

Headloss = 1.7 x velocity head

Outlet structures:
Weir, Notches, Orifices, Effluent trough, Effluent
launder, Outlet pipe.

V-notches attach to sides of troughs and are placed 150
300 mm c/c

Weir length relative to surface area determines strength
of outlet current.

Normal weir loadings are upto 300 m
3
/d/m
Sludge removal
Sludge is normally removed under hydrostatic pr. through
pipes.

Pipe dia = 200 mm or more (for non-mechanized units)
= 100 200 mm (for mechanized units)

Floor slope = shall not be flatter than 1 in 12 (for circular
tanks with scrapper)
= 1 in 10 (for manual cleaning)

Scrapping mechanism is rotated slowly to complete 1
revolution in 30 40 min
Tip vel. Of scraper should be 0.3 m/min or below
Power requirements are 0.75 W/m
2
of tank area
Settling tanks are capable of giving settled water having
turbidity not exceeding 20 NTU, preferably < 10 NTU
Presedimentation & Storage
DT = 0.5 3 h

High SLR = 20 80 m
3
/m
2
/d
Tube Settlers
Settling of basin is dependent on SA, independent of
depth.

Very small dia tubes inserted in the basin provide
laminar flow conditions.

Such tube settling devices provide excellent clarification
with DT equal to or less than 10 min

Tubes cab be horizontal or steeply inclined.

In tubes inclined @ 60, sludge will not slide down the
floors.

Tubes may be : Square, Rectangular, Triangular, Circular,
Hexagonal, Diamond shaped

Thin plastic sheet (1.5 mm) black in color
Settling Tank Efficiency
The of basins is reduced by currents induced by inertia
of incoming water, wind, turbulent flow, density & temp
gradients. Such currents short circuit the flow.

The of real basin,

Y/Y
o
= 1 [1+(nV
o
/(Q/A))]
-1/n


Y/Y
o
-> of removal of suspended particles

-> Coeff. that identifies basin performance

V
o
-> Surface overflow rate for ideal settling basin

Q/A -> Required surface overflow rate for real basin
to achieve an of Y/Y
o
for given basin
performance


Settling Tank Efficiency
Values of n:

n = 0 for best performance
= 1/8 for very good performance
= for good performance
= for ave. performance
= 1 for very poor performance

A well designed tank should be capable of having a
volumetric of atleast 70%

To achieve better clarification, flow regime in settling
basin should be as close as possible to ideal plug flow.

A narrow and long rectangular tank approximates plug
flow conditions than peripheral feed circular tank & centre
feed radial flow tank.

Design of Radial Circular Settling Tank
Design a secondary circular settling tank to remove alum
floc with following data.

1) Ave. output from settling tank = 250 m
3
/h
2) Amt. of water lost in desludging = 2%
3) Ave. design flow = (250/98%)x100% = 255.1 m
3
/h
4) Min. size of alum floc to be removed = 0.8 mm
5) Sp.gr. Of alum floc = 1.002
6) Expected removal of alum floc = 80%
7) Assumed performance of settling tank = very
good (n = 1/8)
8) Kinematic viscosity of water @ 20 C = 1.01x10
-6

m
2
/s
Design of Radial Circular Settling Tank
Approach:

1) Using Stokes law calculate settling vel. Of particles
(V
s
) & check N
R
<1. If N
R
exceeds 1, Hazens formula
could be used.

2) Calculate decreased SLR (Q/A)

3) Using decreased SLR, calculate SA & Tank dia.
Assume DT & calculate depth.

4) Check for weir loading rate
Design of Radial Circular Settling Tank
Step 1: Calculate Settling vel. Of particles:

Vs = (g(Ss-1)d
2
)/18


= (9.81 (1.002-1)(0.8x10
-3
)
2
)/(18x1.01x10
-6
)

= 6.91 x 10
-4
(m/s)

N
R
= V
s
d/

= ((6.91x10
-4
)(0.8x10
-3
)) / (1.01x10
-6
)

= 0.55 < 1 (Hence Stokes law applicable)
Design of Radial Circular Settling Tank
Step 2: Calculate SLR:

V
s
= V
o
(for ideal basin for complete removal)

=

6.91 x 10
-4
(m/s)
= 59.7 (m/d)

Due to short-circuiting, basin is reduced & decreased
SLR (i.e Q/A) is calculated as,

Y/Y
o
= [1 [1+(nV
o
/Q/A)]
-1/n



Y/Y
o
= 0.8


n = 1/8

V
o
= 59.7 m/d

Q/A = 33.49 m/d (OK, since it is within design range
of 30 40 m
3
/m
2
/d)


Design of Radial Circular Settling Tank
Step 3: Determine Dimensions of Tank:

SA of tank, A = Q/(Q/A)

= (255.1x24)/33.49

= 182.8 m
2


Tank dia. = 15.26 m

DT = 2.5 h (assume)

Depth = (255.1 x 2.5) / 182.8
= 3.5 m
Design of Radial Circular Settling Tank
Step 4: Check for Weir loading:

Weir length = Periphery of tank
= x 15.25
= 47.94 m

Weir loading = (255.1 x 24) / 47.94
= 127.7 m
3
/d/m
< 300 m
3
/d/m , hence OK
Design of Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
1. Desired ave. outflow settling tank = 250 m
3
/h

2. Water lost in desludging = 2%

3. Design ave. flow = (250/98%) x 100% = 255.1 m
3
/h

4. Min. size of particle to be removed = 0.02 mm

5. Expected removal of min. particle size = 75%

6. Nature of particles = Discrete & Non-flocculatig

7. Sp. Gravity of particles = 2.65

8. Assumed performance of settling tank = good (n = )

9. Kinematic viscosity of water @ 20 C = 1.01 x 10
-6
(m
2
/s)
Design of Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
1) Calculate settling vel. Of min. size particles:

Vs = (g(S
s
1) d
2
) / 18

= (9.81(2.65-1)(0.02x10
-3
)
2
)/(18x1.01x10
-6
)

= 3.56 x 10
-4
(m/s)

N
R
= V
s
d /

= (3.65x10
-4
)(0.02x10
-3
)/(1.01x10
-6
)

= 704 x 10
-3
< 1 (OK)
Design of Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
2) Calculate decreased SLR:

V
s
= V
o
(Theoretical SLR for 100% removal)


= 3.65 x 10
-4
m/s

= 30.76 m/d

Y/Y
o
= 0.75

n =

Q/A = 18.53 (m/d)

= OK (since within design range of 15 30
m
3
/m
2
/d)

Design of Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
3) Determine Dimensions of Tank:

SA, A = Q/(Q/A)

= (255.1x24) / 18.53

= 330.4 m
2

L/W = 4 (assume)
W = 9.09 m
L = 36.36 m
DT = 4 h (assume)

Depth = (QxT) / A

= (255.1 x 4)/(36.36 x 9.09)

= 3.09 m

Design of Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
4) Influent Structure:

It consists of an influent channel, submerged orifices &
baffles in front of orifices.

Provide 0.6 m wide & 0.6 m deep influent channel that
runs across the width of the tank.

Provide 4 submerged orifices (0.2m x 0.2m) in the inside
wall of an influent channel to distribute the flow uniformly
into basin.

A baffle of 1 m deep is provided at a distance of 1 m away
from orifices to reduce turbulence.
Design of Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
Effluent Structure:

It consists of effluent weir, effluent launder, outlet box &
outlet pipe.

Weir loading rate = 200 m
3
/d/m (assume)

Weir length = (250 x 24 ) / 200 = 30 m

Provide 30 m length of effluent launder with V-notches
fixed on one side of launder.