Prentice Hall

EARTH SCIENCE
Tarbuck Lutgens

Beyond Our Solar System
Buruj
Sekumpulan bintang-bintang yang kelihatan
terbentuk dalam satu corak tertentu.

Setiap buruj mempunyai namanya sendiri.

Persatuan Astronomi Antarabangsa(IAU) telah
bersetuju untuk membahagikan langit kepada
88 kawasan dan setiap kawasan merangkumi
satu buruj.

Pada zaman dahulu ahli-ahli astronomi Yunani
memperhatikan buruk-buruj bergerak melintasi langit
dalam satu jalur 16

lebarnya. Jalur yang hanya wujud
dalam fikiran ini dinamakan zodiak

Beyond Our Solar System
Buruj
Kedudukan buruj di ruang angkasa adalah agak tetap,
tetapi kedudukannya di langit kelihatan berubah-ubah
akibat putaran dan peredaran Bumi.

Jadi sebahagian buruj seperti buruj zodiak hanya
kelihatan pada waktu tertentu dalam setahun

Sebenarnya lama kelamaan bentuk buruj akan
berubah kerana semua bintang bergerak ke arah-arah
yang berbeza dengan halaju berbeza.


Proper Motion
In addition to the
periodic back-and-
forth motion related to
the trigonometric
parallax, nearby stars
also show continuous
motions across the sky.
These are related to
the actual motion of
the stars throughout
the Milky Way, and
are called proper
motion.
Beyond Our Solar System
Contoh-contoh Buruj Zodiak
Constellations
In ancient times, constellations only referred to the
brightest stars that appeared to form groups.
Constellations (2)
They were believed to represent great heroes and
mythological figures. Their position in the sky
seemed to tell stories that were handed down from
generation to generation over thousands of years.
Constellations (3)
Today, constellations are well-defined regions on
the sky, irrespective of the presence or absence of
bright stars in those regions.
Constellations (4)
The stars of a
constellation only
appear to be close
to one another.
Usually, this is
only a projection
effect:
The stars of a
constellation may
be located at very
different
distances from
us.
Constellations (5)
Stars are named by a Greek letter (a, b, g) according to
their relative brightness within a given constellation + the
possessive form of the name of the constellation:
Orion
Betelgeuse
Rigel
Rigel = b Orionis
Betelgeuse = a Orionis
Constellations (6)
Some examples of easily recognizable
constellations and their brightest stars
The Magnitude Scale
First introduced by Hipparchus (160 - 127 B.C.):
Brightest stars: ~1
st
magnitude
Faintest stars (unaided eye): 6
th
magnitude
More quantitative:
1
st
mag. stars appear 100 times brighter than 6
th
mag.
stars
1 mag. difference gives a factor of 2.512 in apparent
brightness (larger magnitude => fainter object!)
The Magnitude Scale (2)
Sirius (brightest star in the night sky): m
v
= -1.42
Full moon: m
v
= -12.5
Sun: m
v
= -26.5
The magnitude scale system can be extended
towards negative numbers (very bright) and
numbers greater than 6 (faint objects):
Betelgeuse
Rigel
The Magnitude Scale (Example)
For a magnitude difference
of 0.41 0.14 = 0.27,
we find an intensity ratio of
(2.512)
0.27
= 1.28.
In other words, Rigel is 1.28
times brighter than
Betelgeuse.
App. Magn. m
V
= 0.41
App. Magn. m
V
= 0.14
Distance and Intrinsic Brightness (2)
Betelgeuse
Rigel
Rigel is appears 1.28 times
brighter than Betelgeuse,
Thus, Rigel is actually
(intrinsically) 1.28*(1.6)
2

= 3.3 times brighter than
Betelgeuse.
but Rigel is 1.6 times further
away than Betelgeuse.
Stellar (star) Brightness
Apparent Magnitude (Magnitud ketara) mv
Apparent magnitude is the brightness of a star
when viewed from Earth.
Three factors control the apparent brightness of a
star as seen from Earth: how big it is, how hot it
is, and how far away it is.

Absolute Magnitude (Magnitud mutlak) Mv
Absolute magnitude is the apparent brightness
of a star if it were viewed from a distance of 32.6
light-years.
Is a measure of the amount of light it gives off.
Absolute Magnitude (2)
Betelgeuse
Rigel
Betelgeuse Rigel
m
V
0.41 0.14
M
V
-5.5 -6.8
d 152 pc 244 pc
Back to our example of
Betelgeuse and Rigel:
Difference in absolute magnitudes: 6.8 5.5 = 1.3
=> Luminosity ratio= (2.512)
1.3
= 3.3
m
V
= apparent magnitude


M
V
= absolute magnitude
1 pc = 3.26 LY
Distances on the Celestial Sphere
The distance between two stars on the celestial
sphere can only be given as the difference between
the directions in which we see the stars.
Therefore, distances on
the celestial sphere are
measured as angles, i.e.,
in
degrees (
o
):
Full circle = 360
o
arc minutes ():
1
o
= 60

arc seconds ():
1

= 60

Apparent Motion of The Celestial
Sphere
Looking north, you will see stars apparently circling
counterclockwise around the Celestial North Pole.
Apparent Motion of The Celestial Sphere (2)
Some
constellations
around the
Celestial North
Pole never set.
These are called
circumpolar.
The circle on the celestial sphere containing the
circumpolar constellations is called the
circumpolar circle.
Apparent Motion of The Celestial Sphere (3)
Looking east,
you see stars
rising and
moving to the
upper right
(south)
Looking south,
you see stars
moving to the
right (west)
Kegunaan buruj
Sebelum kompas dibina, buruj digunakan
sebagai petunjuk arah oleh ahli pelayaran,
pengembara di padang pasir dan juru ukur
tanah.

Misalnya Buruj Beruang Besar (Biduk Major)
yang sentiasa menunjuk ke arah utara.
Buruj pari sentiasa menunjuk ke arah
selatan.

Buruj Orion pula menunjukkan arah barat dan
timur
Orion
The Constellation Orion
Dikenali sebagai
buruj kiblat @
bintang kiblat
Kiblat ditentukan
dgn
menganjurkan
ketiga-tiga
(Alnitak, Alnilam
dan Mintaka)
bintang ke arah
barat.
Kelihatan pd
bulan-bulan
tertentu iaitu:
a) Julai waktu
subuh
b) Dis waktu
tengah mlm
c) Mac waktu
maghrib
The Constellation Ursa Major
Bentuk buruj Biduk Major
iaitu seekor beruang
dengan tujuh bintang.
Buruj ini kelihatan di
bahagian ekor dan
punggung beruang.

Jika satu garis lurus dari
bintang Merak dan Dubhe
dalam buruj Biduk Major
dipanjangkan ke hala
Utara, garis ini akan
menunjukkan arah Utara.
Dubhe
Merak
Arah Kutub Utara
The Constellation Southern Cross
Bentuk buruj Pari juga di
kenali sebagai Palang
Selatan iaitu palang
dengan empat bintang.

Jika satu garis dilukis dari
bintang g kepada bintang
Acrux dalam Buruj Pari
dan dipanjangkan garis
ini ia akan menunjukkan
arah Selatan.
g
Acrux
Arah Kutub
Selatan
g
8/31/2014 The Sky 27
Celestial Poles
PENCERAPAN BURUJ
PLANETARIUM MINI
BURUJ

TAMAT


31
Alam semesta mempunyai kira-kira
50 billion galaksi .

BIMA SAKTI GALAKSI KITA

Galaksi ialah satu himpunan berjuta-juta
bintang, termasuk gas dan debu yang
digugus bersama oleh tarikan graviti.

GALAKSI
Galaxies
Star systems like our Milky Way
Contain a few thousand to tens of billions of stars.
Large variety of shapes and sizes
Galaxy Diversity
The Hubble Deep Field:
10-day exposure on an apparently empty field in
the sky
Even seemingly
empty regions
of the sky
contain
thousands of
very faint, very
distant galaxies
Large variety of
galaxy
morphologies:
Spirals
Ellipticals
Irregular
Barred Spirals
(some interacting)
Types of Galaxies
25.3 The Universe
Spiral Galaxies (Galaksi lingkaran)
About 30 percent of all galaxies are spiral
galaxies.
They have large diameters of 20,000 to 125,000
light-years and contain both young and old stars.
About 60 percent of galaxies are classified as
elliptical galaxies.
Elliptical Galaxies (Galaksi elips)
Elliptical galaxies range in shape from round to
oval.
Types of Galaxies
25.3 The Universe
Irregular Galaxies (Galaksi tidak seragam)
Only 10 percent of the known galaxies have irregular
shapes and are classified as irregular galaxies.
In addition to shape and size, one of the major
differences among different types of galaxies is the
age of their stars.
Irregular galaxies contain young stars.

Galaxy Classification
Sa
Sb
Sc
E0 =
Spherical
Small
nucleus;
loosely wound
arms
E1
E6
E0, , E7 Large
nucleus;
tightly
wound arms
E7 = Highly
elliptical
(elongated)
Gas and Dust in Galaxies
Spirals are rich in
gas and dust
Ellipticals are almost
devoid of gas and dust
Galaxies with disk and bulge,
but no dust are termed S0
Barred Spirals(Lingkaran Berpalang)
Some spirals show a
pronounced bar structure
in the center
They are termed barred
spiral galaxies
Classification Sequence:
SBa, , SBc, analogous
to regular spirals
Spiral Galaxies
Berbentuk cakera dengan bonjol di tengah dan mempunyai
beberapa lengan berpilin atau berpusing
Kebanyakan bintang tua, bintang gergasi merah terkumpul di
bahagian pusat.
Bahagian lengan terdiri daripada bintang-bintang yang baru
dibentuk, kerdil putih dan nebula. Bahagian lengan berputar
mengelilingi pusat.
Contoh : Bima Sakti dan Andromeda
40
Spiral galaxies
41
Rotating, spiral galaxy
Great Galaxy, a Spiral Galaxy, in the
Constellation Andromeda
43
Andromeda Galaxy
Elliptical Galaxy
Berbentuk kanta cembung, bujur
atau bulat (American football) dan
tidak mempunyai lengan
Paling cerah di bahagian pusat
dan malap di bahagian pinggir.
Tiada gas dan debu, maka
bintang-bintang baru tidak boleh
dibentuk.
Biasanya terdiri daripada bintang-
bintang tua, bintang gergasi
merah
Kebanyakan bintang terkumpul di
bahagian pusatnya.
Contoh M87 dalam buruj Virgo,
NGC 147, NGC 205 dalam
Andromeda
Types of Galaxies
25.3 The Universe
Irregular Galaxies (Galaksi tidak seragam)
Only 10 percent of the known galaxies have irregular
shapes and are classified as irregular galaxies.
In addition to shape and size, one of the major
differences among different types of galaxies is the
age of their stars.
Irregular galaxies contain young stars.

Irregular Galaxies
Often: result of galaxy collisions /
mergers
Often: Very active star formation
(Starburst galaxies)
Some: Small (dwarf galaxies)
satellites of larger galaxies
(e.g., Magellanic Clouds)
Awan Magellan Besar
Large
Magellanic
Cloud
NGC 4038/4039
The Cocoon
Galaxy
Irregular Galaxy
Tidak mempunyai bentuk yang khusus
Saiz berubah
Mengandungi nebula serta bintang-bintang yang baru dilahirkan
Contoh Awan Magellan
Types of Galaxies
25.3 The Universe
A galaxy cluster is a system of galaxies containing
several to thousands of member galaxies which orbit
each other.
The force of gravity holds these clusters together.
Our own galaxy is part of a galactic cluster known as
the local group.
The local group contain at least 28 galaxies.
Finally galactic clusters reside in huge groups called
supercluster which may be the largest entities in the
known universe.
Galaxy Clusters
Galactic cluster
Galactic cluster
Group of galaxies
Some contain thousands of galaxies
Local Group
Our own group of galaxies
Contains at least 28 galaxies
Supercluster
Huge swarm of galaxies
May be the largest entity in the universe
Galaxy Cluster
The Most Distant Galaxies
Cluster of galaxies at ~ 4 to 6 billion light years
At very large
distances, only
the general
characteristics
of galaxies can
be used to
estimate their
luminosities
distances.
Masses and Other Properties of Galaxies
BIMA SAKTI

Matahari hanya merupakan salah satu daripada 100 ribu
juta bintang yang terdapat di dalam galaksi Bima Sakti.

Matahari dan bintang-bintang yg lain bergerak perlahan-
perlahan ~ 220 km/s mengelilingi pusat Bima Sakti.

Sistem suria kita terletak pada salah satu lengan
lingkaran Bima Sakti.

Matahari berada kira-kira 30 ribu tahun cahaya daripada
pusat Bima Sakti. (located two-thirds of the way out from
the centre).
Pada pusat Bima Sakti terdapat banyak bintang tua,
manakala pada lengan-lengan berlingkarnya terdapat
banyak bintang muda dan gas serta debu.
54
Milky Way + telescope
Face-on and Edge-on Views of the
Milky Way Galaxy
The Milky Way Galaxy
25.3 The Universe
The Milky Way is a large spiral galaxy whose
disk is about 100,000 light-years wide and about
10,000 light-years thick at the nucleus.
Size of the Milky Way
Radio telescopes reveal that the Milky Way has
at least three distinct spiral arms, with some
splintering.(serpihan)
Sun is 30,000 light-years from the center.
Structure of the Milky Way
Galaxies
Milky Way Galaxy
Rotation
Around the galactic nucleus
Outermost stars move the slowest
Sun rotates around the galactic nucleus
once about every 240 million years
Halo surrounds the galactic disk
Spherical
Very tenuous gas (gas yang sangat nipis)
Numerous globular clusters
First Studies of the Galaxy
First attempt to unveil the
structure of our Galaxy by
William Herschel (1785), based
on optical observations
The shape of the Milky Way was believed to resemble a
grindstone, with the sun close to the center
The Milky Way
Almost everything we see in the
night sky belongs to the Milky
Way
We see most of the Milky Way
as a faint band of light across
the sky
From the outside, our Milky Way
might look very much like our
cosmic neighbor, the Andromeda
galaxy
The Structure of the Milky Way (1)
Disk
Nuclear Bulge
Halo
Sun
Globular Clusters
The Structure of the Milky Way (2)
Galactic Plane
Galactic Center
The structure is hard to determine because:
1) We are inside
2) Distance measurements are difficult
3) Our view towards the center is obscured by gas and
dust
The Mass of the Milky Way (2)
Total mass in the disk of
the Milky Way:
Approx. 200 billion
solar masses
Additional mass in an
extended halo:
Total: Approx. 1 trillion
solar masses
Most of the mass is not
emitting any radiation:
Dark Matter!
Stellar Populations
Population I: Young stars:
metal rich; located in spiral
arms and disk
Population II: Old stars: metal
poor; located in the halo
(globular clusters) and nuclear
bulge
Orbital Motion in the Milky Way (1)
Disk stars:
Nearly circular
orbits in the disk
of the Galaxy
Halo stars:
Highly elliptical
orbits; randomly
oriented
Orbital Motion in the Milky Way (2)
Differential Rotation
Sun orbits around
Galactic center with 220
km/s
1 orbit takes approx.
240 million years
Stars closer to the
galactic center orbit
faster
Stars farther out orbit
more slowly

GALAKSI


Lengkapkan pernyataan-pernyataan berikut:

1. Gugusan bintang yang membentuk corak tertentu di
langit dipanggil ______________.
2. Galaksi yang mengandungi sistem suria kita
dinamakan_____________.
3. Galaksi ini berbentuk __________.
4. Pusatnya yang membonjol dan kelihatan cerah
mengandungi bintang-bintang___________manakala
lengannya mengandungi awan-awan gas dan bintang-
bintang____________.
5. Galaksi berbentuk ____________ tidak mempunyai awan
gas dan hanya mempunyai bintang raksasa merah yang
akan mati tidak lama lagi.
6. Galaksi berbentuk ____________ mempunyai awan gas
dan bintang-bintang muda sahaja.
7. Galaksi yang paling hampir dgn Bima Sakti
___________(160,000 LY)
8. Galaksi yang paling besar dalam alam semesta
________________
Ciri Lingkaran
/berpilin
Elips Tidak seragam
Bentuk
Kehadiran debu
dan gas
Terdapat hampir
Diameter
Usia bintang
Warna
Kecerahan
Contoh
GALAKSI

TAMAT