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OPTICAL FIBERS:
STRUCTURES,
WAVEGUIDING,
AND
FABRICATION
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The Nature of Light
1. Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by
humans.
2. The wave nature of light was first illustrated through experiments on
diffraction and interference.
3. Like all electromagnetic waves, light can travel through a vacuum.
4. The transverse nature of light can be demonstrated through
polarization.
5. The speed of light depends upon the medium through which it travels.
6. Intensity is the absolute measure of a light wave's power density
7. Brightness is the relative intensity as perceived by the average human
eye.
8. The frequency of a light wave is related to its energy and color.
9. The wavelength of a light wave is inversely proportional to its
frequency.
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Spherical and plane wave fronts
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Field distributions in plane E&M waves
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The Structure of an Electromagnetic Wave. Electric and magnetic fields are
actually superimposed over the top of one another but are illustrated separately
for clarity in illustration. The z-direction can be considered to be either a
representation in space or the passing of time at a single point.
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Amplitude Fluctuation in an Electromagnetic Wave. Here both the electric field
and the magnetic field are shown as a single field oscillating about a locus of
points which forms the line of travel.
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Basic Optical Laws and Definitions
Refractive Index
The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in
matter is known as the refractive index or index of
refraction n of the material and is given by
Typical values of n are
1.00 for air,
1.33 for water,
1.45 for silica glass
2.42 for diamond.

larger value of n = Denser material
lower value of n = Less denser material
n = c / v
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n
1
n
2
n
3
Index of Refraction
n1<n2<n3
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Reflection of light
Some part of the light reflected when strikes
on a surface
Laws of reflection of light
Angle of incident is equal to angle of reflection
The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray
all lies in same direction

Refraction of light
When light enters from one medium to other
medium
Direction and velocity are changed
It is called refraction of light
Refraction and reflection
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When light passes from rare to dense
medium, it bends towards the normal
When light passes from dense to rare
medium, it bends away from the normal
Law of refraction is
The incident ray, the normal, and the
refracted ray at the point of incident all lies in
the same plane
The ratio of the sine of angle incidence to the
sine of angle of refraction is always constant
This ratio is called refractive index
Refraction and reflection
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Refraction and reflection
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Snell,s Law
Snell discovered the relationship between
the refractive indices of the materials and
the sine of the angles as:
n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
If the angle of refraction is 90 then it is
equal to 1 so
Sin
c
=n
2
/ n
1

Refraction and reflection
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Total internal reflection
When light passes from denser medium
to rarer medium it bends away from the
normal
The incident angle for which angle of
refraction is 90 is called critical angle
If incident angle becomes more than
critical angle all the light will reflect back
to the same denser medium
Such a phenomenon is called total
internal reflection

Refraction and reflection
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Angle of Refraction
Angle of Reflection
Angle of Incidence =
D
The critical angle of incidence.
Glass
Air
B
Glass
Air
Angle of Incidence
A
Glass
Air
Critical Angle
90
0
C
Glass
Air
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Single fiber structure
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Core
1. Light propagates along the core of the fiber.
2. Core material is highly pure silica SiO
2
and is
surrounded by glass cladding.
Cladding
1. Cladding reduces scattering loss that results from
the dielectric discontinuities at the core surface.
2. It adds mechanical strength to the fiber
3. It protects the core from absorbing surface
contaminants with which it could come in contact.
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Modes
Simply can be defined as the different paths of the light through
the optical fiber cable
Every mode is represented by a unique solution of the Maxwells
equation inside the core
The stable Field distribution along the x-axis with only a periodic
z-dependence is known as mode

Fiber Types
Generally two types
1. Single mode
2. Multimode
Step index Fiber
Graded index Fiber
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Fiber Types
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Only permits the fundamental mode of the
light
Smaller diameter of the core
Numerical aperture is also small
Reduced acceptance angle
Difficult to couple the light in the fiber
Single mode fiber
Fiber Types
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Transmits a large number of modes
Each mode has the different path through the fiber
Each mode arrives at the end at slightly different time
(modal dispersion)
Modal dispersion can be reduced by varying the
refractive index with in the core
There are two types of multimode fibers
Step index and graded index

Fiber Types
Multimode fiber
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Step index Multimode fiber
The core of the fiber has the uniform refractive
index.
Graded index Multimode Fiber

Graded-index fiber becoming very popular for
specialized applications.
It is relatively expensive to manufacture, due
to its complex core structure.
Fiber Types
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Fiber Types
Advantages Multimode Fiber:
1. Easier to launch optical power into the fiber.
2. Easier to connect similar optical fibers.
3. LED are used for launching optical power whereas single mode
fiber use Laser.
LEDs are easier to make
Less expensive
Less complex circuitry
Longer life time
Disadvantage:
1. Intermodal dispersion
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Ray optics representation of the propagation mechanism in an ideal
step index fiber.
Ray Optics
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Acceptance angle
The entering rays which have the angle
greater than c can be transmitted in
optical fiber
As the fiber is Circular, so angle is
applicable in two dimensions and would
look like a cone
The range of incident angles which can
be used for total Internal Reflection is
called Cone of acceptance


Ray Optics
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Numerical Aperture
It is measure of fibers light gathering ability.
This represent the coupling of light into the
fiber core.
Think of the aperture as a funnel, the larger
the funnel the more usable light thats pumped
into the core.
Ray Optics
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Numerical Aperture

Light will be accepted and propagated only if
it enters the core and strikes the cladding at an
angle greater than the critical angle.
Any light rays striking the core within this
acceptance cone will be propagated down the
fiber.
Sin value of acceptance angle is called
Numerical aperture.
Ray Optics
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Ray Optics
Critical angle
Sin
c
= n2 / n1
Maximum entrance angle
n sin
0,max
=n
1
sin
c
= (n1
2
- n2
2
)
1/2
Numerical Aperture NA
NA= n sin
0,max
= (n
1
2
- n
2
2
)
1/2
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Optical rays transmission through dielectric slab
waveguide
c c
n n |
t
u u = < >
2
;
2 1
(
(

=
|
.
|

\
|

u
u
t

u t
sin
cos
2
sin
tan
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
n
n n
m d n
For TE-case, when electric waves are normal to the plane of incidence
must be satisfied with following relationship: u
[2-25]
Optical Fiber communications, 3
rd
ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
O
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TE modes in slab waveguide
z
y
number) (mode 3 , 2 , 1 , 0
) cos( ) ( e ) , , , (
=
=
m
z t y f t z y x E
m m x m
|

Optical Fiber communications, 3

rd
ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
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Optical Fibers: Modal Theory (Guided or
Propagating modes) & Ray Optics Theory
1
n
2
n
2 1
n n >
Step Index Fiber
Optical Fiber communications, 3
rd
ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
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Fundamental Mode Field Distribution
Optical Fiber communications, 3
rd
ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
Polarizations of fundamental mode
Mode field diameter
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Different Structures of Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber communications, 3
rd
ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
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Mode propagation constant as a function of frequency
Mode propagation constant, , is the most important transmission
characteristic of an optical fiber, because the field distribution can be easily
written in the form of eq. [2-27].
In order to find a mode propagation constant and cut-off frequencies of
various modes of the optical fiber, first we have to calculate the
normalized frequency, V, defined by:

) (
lm
|
NA
2 2
2
2
2
1

t a
n n
a
V = =
[2-30]
a: radius of the core, is the optical free space wavelength,
are the refractive indices of the core & cladding.

2 1
&n n
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Plots of the propagation constant as a function of normalized
frequency for a few of the lowest-order modes
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Single mode Operation
The cut-off wavelength or frequency for each mode is obtained from:





Single mode operation is possible (Single mode fiber) when:

2
) (
2 c 2
2
c
n n
k n
c
c lm
e

t
| = = =
[2-31]
405 . 2 s V
[2-32]
fiber optical along faithfully propagate can HE Only
11
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Multi-Mode Operation
Total number of modes, M, supported by a multi-mode fiber is
approximately (When V is large) given by:




Power distribution in the core & the cladding: Another quantity of
interest is the ratio of the mode power in the cladding, to the total
optical power in the fiber, P, which at the wavelengths (or frequencies) far
from the cut-off is given by:
2
2
V
M ~
[2-36]
clad
P
M
P
P
clad
3
4
~
[2-37]
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Graded Index Fiber (GIN)
The most commonly used GIN have the index variation of
core as the power law given by






.


( ) ( ) a r for 1 2 1 ) (
a r 0 for 2 1 ) (
2 1
2
1
1
2
1
1
> = A ~ A =
s s
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
A =
n n n r n
a
r
n r n
o
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FIBER MATERIALS
I n selecting materials following requirements must be satisfied
1. It must b possible to make long, thin, flexible fibers fro the material
2. The material must be transparent at a particular wavelength in order for the fiber
to guide light effectively.
3. Physically compatible materials that have slightly different refractive indices for
the core and cladding must be available
Materials that satisfy these requirements are glasses and plastics
Usually fibers are made of glass consisting of either silica SiO
2
or silicate
Moderate loss fibers with large cores used for short-transmissions
Low loss (very transparent) fibers are used for long-haul applications
Plastics have higher attenuation than the glass fibers
Plastic fibers are used in short distance fibers where more mechanical
stresses are possible

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Glass Fibers
Glass is made by fusing metal oxide, sulfides or selenides.
The resulting material is a randomly connected molecular network
called glass.
Glasses do not have well defined melting points
Melting point is defined as the temperature at which glass becomes
fluid enough to free itself of glass bubbles.
The largest category for optical fibers consists of oxide glasses.
The most common of these oxides is the silica SiO
2
which has
refractive index of 1.458 at 850nm
Fluorine or various oxides such as B
2
O
3
, GeO
2
, or P
2
O
5
can be
doped to slightly change the refractive index for the cladding
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Plastic material
Plastic fibers are more economical over short distances for
slower speeds.
Plastic fiber has poor optical qualities as compared to glass.
The cost and performance of plastic-clad Silica fiber is a
compromise between the all-glass and all plastic fibers.
Plastic-Clad Silica Fiber.
The above fiber uses a high quality glass core, clad
with a low cost plastic sheathing.

Midway Solution
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Since the cladding must have
a lower refractive index as
compared to the core so we
can chose the following
options for the doped
materials

1. GeO
2
SiO
2
, core; SiO
2
cladding
2. P
2
O
5
-SiO
2
, core; SiO
2
cladding
3. SiO
2
core; B
2
O
3
-SiO
2
cladding
4. GeO-B
2
O
3
-SiO
2
core; B
2
O
3
-SiO
2

cladding

Here the notation GeO
2
SiO
2
denotes a GeO
2
doped silica
glass

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Properties of pure silica glass
Pure silica is referred as silica glass, fused glass
or vitreous silica
Offer high resistance to deformation at high
temperature as 1000
o
C
High resistance to breakage from thermal shock
because of its low thermal expansion
Good chemical durability
High transparency in both the visible and infra-
red region
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ACTIVE GLASS FIBERS
Incorporating rare earth elements (atomic
numbers 57 - 71) converts normal passive glass
fiber into new materials with new optical and
magnetic properties.
The new materials perform amplification,
attenuation and phase retardation on the
passing light
Doping can be carried out for silica, tellurite and
halide glasses
Commonly used materials are Erbium and
Neodymium
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Plastic Optical Fibers
High demand for delivering high speed services to the work station
require high bandwidth graded index polymer (plastic) optical fibers
(POF).
POFs are used within the premises of user.
Fiber with core of polymethylmethacrylate referred as (PMMA POF)
Fiber with core of perfluorinated polymer is referred as PF POF
POFs have greater attenuation as compared to glass fibers.
POFs are tough and durable as compared to glass fibers
Modulus is two order of magnitude smaller than the glass fiber so
flexible to install.
Compared with glass fiber the core diameter is 10 20 times larger
Inexpensive plastic injection moulding technologies can be used to
fabricate connectors, splices and transceivers

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Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCF)
Demonstrated in 1990, initially called holy fiber and later
called Photonic Crystal Fiber (PCF)

It has air holes run along the entire length of the fiber

Sometimes air holes act as cladding known as Index-
Guiding PCF

Another form uses the band gap effect between the core
as air holes and cladding known as photonic band gap
fibers
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Fiber Fabrication
There are two basic techniques for fiber fabrication
Vapor-phase oxidation process
Direct melt methods

Direct melt methods :
Traditional glass making procedure , fibers are made from molten
state of purified silicate glass.

Vapor-phase oxidation process:
Highly pure vapors of metal halides (SiCl
4
and GeCl
4
) react with
oxygen to form a white powder (SiO
2
).
These particles are collected at the surface of the bulk glass by one
of the four processes.
These rods are then sintered and called preforms.

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The preforms are around 10
25mm in dia and 60 120cm long

Fibers are made from this preform
using the fiber drawn equipment

Drawing furnace bring it to the
temperature where tip becomes
soft and can be pulled through
take-up drum

Thickness depend on the speed of
the drum

Finally it is coated with the elastic
material for protection



Fiber Drawing
apparatus
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Outside Vapor-phase oxidation
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Vapor-Phase Axial Deposition (VAD)
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Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition
(MCVD)
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Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition
(PCVD)
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Photonic crystal Fibers
Initially this was called holey fiber and later known as photonic
crystal fiber (PCF) or a microstructured fiber.
There are two categories of photonic crystal fibers.
1. Index- Guiding PCF
2. Photonic Bandgap Fiber.
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Natural silicon
dioxide SiO
2
Reduction
Chlorination
Distillation
Silicon Tetrachloride
(SiCl4)
Ultrapure silicon
dioxide SiO
Fine particle mist
with SiO
Oxidation in the
vapor phase
Dry silicon
dioxide SiO
Hydrolysis in the
vapor phase
Dehydration
CO
FeCl
C,Cl
O
HCl
H ,O
Cl
HCl
3
Cl 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
Quartz and quartz mineral sands
Ultra pure silicon dioxide for use in
fiber manufacture and integrated
circuits
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Mechanical Properties of Fibers
Two basic mechanical characteristics of glass optical
fibers are:
1. Strength
2. Static fatigue
Strength relates to instantaneous failure under an applied
load.
Static fatigue relates to the slow growth of the pre existing
flaws in the glass fiber under humid conditions and tensile
stress.
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Fibers must be able to withstand :
1. Cable manufacturing process
2. Cable installation process
3. In service
1. Stresses
2. Strains
During
Force applied to the fiber can either impulsive or
gradually varying.
Mechanical Properties of Fibers
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Mechanical Properties of Fibers
Under applied stress:
Glass will extend elastically up to its breaking strength.
Metals can be stretched plastically well beyond their true
elastic range
Copper wires can be elongated plastically by more that 20
percent before they fracture.
Glass fibers elongation of only 1 percent are possible before
they fracture occurs.
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Microcrack model
A hypothetical model of a microcrack in an optical fiber
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Mechanical Properties of Fibers
Proof testing:
A high assurance of fiber reliability can be provided by proof
testing.
In this method an optical fiber is subjected to a tensile
load greater than that expected at any time during the
cable manufacturing, installations, and service.
Any fibers that do not pass the proof test are rejected.
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Standard loose buffer tube type
Standard tight buffer (Bound) type
Fiber Ribbon





Classification on Cable Structure
Optical fiber cable
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Loose buffer tube

*Friction
The primary coated Fiber is laid loosely in a jelly filled
narrow tube to prevent changes in the fibers optical
properties due to
* Pressure
*Tensile stress
* Bends
* Torsion
Classification on Cable Structure
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Loose buffer tube

Normally, there are only 4-6 fibers per tube.
The tube must conform to the following requirements.
* It must not deform through normal mechanical
load.
* It must be durable.
* It must have low friction.
* It must withstand reasonably rough handling during
installation, without changing the fibers optical
properties.
Classification on Cable Structure
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Area of application

Loose tube fibers have been used very
successfully in all areas of information
transfer.
Used for long distance Networks
Classification on Cable Structure
Loose buffer tube
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Tight Buffered Fibers
The other alternative to protect the primary coated fiber is
achieved by applying a thick layer of plastic directly on the
245-500 m thick primary coated fiber.


Classification on Cable Structure
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Tight Buffered Fibers
The tight buffer is color-coded according to a standard or
customers specification.
Fiber 125 2 m
Primary coated fiber 245-500 m Color coded layer
900 m
Classification on Cable Structure
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Area of application
Local Area Networks (LAN) use almost exclusively
tight buffered.
Advantages

Greatest area of application is indoors as connector
cables and rack cables.
Easily terminated with a connector.
They are relatively easy to deal with during installation
Classification on Cable Structure
Tight Buffered Fibers
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Fiber Ribbon Technique
Third relatively new technique for adding buffer is to lay
several (2-12) primary coated fibers next to each other and
then apply the additional coating.
Three methods for ribbon technique:


* Encapsulating
* Taping
* Edge bonding
Classification on Cable Structure
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Tapping: initial method
Edge bounding: filling the Acrylate between
the gapes
Encapsulation: A layer of Acrylate is
applied around the fibers

Fiber Ribbon Technique
Classification on Cable Structure
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The three most common methods of manufacturing fiber ribbon.
Taping
Edge Bonding
Encapsulation
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Breakout Cable (In door)
Simplex Cord
Duplex figure 8 / Zip Cord
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Direct Burried Cable
PE outer sheath
PE inner sheath
Corrugated coated steel tape armour
Central strength member
Jelly filled loose tube
Moisture barrier sheath
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Aerial cable.
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Armored outdoor cable
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A typical range of armor protection cable
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Fiber optic underwater cable
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lightweight deep-water cable.
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Cable Jackets require a veriety of materials to best
serve the environment to be used in.
These materials offer protection from the following
concerns:
1. Mechanical
2. Chemical
3. Thermal
4. Environmental

Cable material
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* Direct burried application.
1. Polyethylene (PE)
A thermoplastic with good chemical and
moisture resistance.
Application
* Aerial
2. Polyurethane (PU)
Application
A polymer with excellent abrasion
resistance and low temperature flexibility.
* Excellent for duct.
Cable material
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* Duct environments
3. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
A thermoplastic with good flame and abrasion resistance.
Application
* Raceways
4. Teflon.
A fluorocarbon / thermoplastic offers excellent
properties in all cable categories except in radiation
environments.
More costly than other cable material.
Cable material
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Kevlar
It is five times stronger than steel.
Protect fiber from moisture, chemicals
and mechanical stresses placed on cable
during installation, and splicing.
An aramid strength member.
Buffer Jacket (Tube)
Cable material
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Central member

Prevents buckling
Facilitates stranding
Allows cable flexing
Provides temperature stability
Cable material
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Strength member
Aramid Yarns (Kevlar)
Primary tensile load bearing member
Armoring (Burried Cable)
Protection from rodent attack and crushing
forces.
Corrugated steel tape or multiple metal
strands
Cable material