Experimental Fluid Dynamics

M. Muste, S. Ghosh, F. Stern

11/02/21 1
Table of Contents

 Definitions
 EFD Philosophy
 Types of Experiments
 EFD Phases
 Measurement Systems
 EFD Validation
 Reporting EFD
 A pretty experiment is in

Definitions
itself often more valuable
than twenty formulae
extracted from our
minds." 

- Albert Einstein

 Experimentation: operation carried out under controlled

conditions with a measurement system for determining or
demonstrating a principle or effect, for testing a hypothesis, or for
acquiring data for specific purposes (design evaluation, validation,
calibration)

 Experimental Fluid Dynamics: scientific method based on

dimensional analysis, similarity, and experimentation used for
defining behavior of systems and/or processes in Fluid Dynamics
(FD) that cannot be satisfactory/completely formulated by Analytical
(AFD) or Computational (CFD) approaches

 Measurement Systems: facilities, instrumentation,

operational environment, data-acquisition and data-reduction
procedures used in an experiment
EFD Philosophy
 EFD general approach:
 Establish expected outcome and allowable uncertainties
 Define needs (identify variable, establish scale)
 Understand the nature of the FD problem (dimensional analysis)
 Evaluate physical situation, estimate results, and anticipate
instruments
 Understand flow measurement principles

 Current trends in EFD methodology:

 Synergy between AFD, CFD, and EFD (shift from routine tests
for global variables to detailed tests for local variables)
 Implementation of EFD international standard procedures
 Integration of UA considerations in all phases of EFD
 D E F IN E P U R P O S E O F T E S T A N D
R E S U L T S U N C E R T A IN T Y R E Q U IR E M E N T S

EFD Philosophy S E L E C T U N C E R T A IN T Y M E T H O D

D E S IG N T H E T E S T
- D E S IR E D P A R A M E T E R S ( C D , C R , ... .)
- M O D E L C O N F IG U R A T IO N S (S )
- T E S T T E C H N IQ U E (S )
- M E A S U R E M E N T S R E Q U IR E D
- S P E C IF IC IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N
- C O R R E C T IO N S T O B E A P P L IE D

D E T E R M IN E E R R O R S O U R C E S

UA involved in YES
A F F E C T IN G R E S U L T S

multiple stages E S T IM A T E E F F E C T O F
T H E E R R O R S O N R E S U LT S

of the
experiment IM P R O V E M E N T
N O U N C E R T A IN T Y N O
A C C E P TA B LE ?
P O S S IB L E ?

N O YES

N O TEST IM P L E M E N T T E S T

S TAR T T E ST

M EASU R E-
R E S U LT S N O M EN T
A C C E P TA BLE ? SYSTEM
PRO BLEM ?

YES YES

N O C O N T IN U E T E S T S O LV E P R O B LE M

D O CU M EN T R E S U LT S
YES E S T IM A T E - REFER ENC E C O N D IT IO N
PU RPO SE
A C TU A L D ATA - P R E C IS IO N L IM IT
A C H IE V E D ?
U N C E R T A IN T Y - B IA S L IM IT
- TO TA L U N C E R T A IN T Y
EFD Philosophy
Use UA in all experimental phases to ensure maximum
efficiency (time, effort, and financial resources)
Types of Experiments

 Grouped by field/purpose:
 Science & Technology: understand and investigate a
phenomenon/process, substantiate and validate a theory
(hypothesis)

 Research & Development: document a process/system,

provide benchmark data (standard procedures, validations),
calibrate instruments, equipment, and facilities

 Industry: design optimization and analysis, provide data for

direct use, product liability, and acceptance

 Teaching: Instruction/demonstration
Types of Experiments
 Grouped by methodology:
 Timewise (data collected over a period of time)
 Sample-to-sample (data analyzed over several realizations/samples)
 Grouped from UA perspective:
 Repeated
 Replicated (repetition carried over in a very specific manner)
 Replication levels:

– zeroth order (one experiment, multiple measurements,

same instrumentation)
– first order (multiple experiments, multiple measurements,
same instrumentation)
– N-th order (multiple experiments, multiple
measurements, multiple instrumentation of the same
type)
EFD Phases
 Planning: formulate objectives and allowable uncertainties, define
needs, identify pertinent process variables (targeted, independent,
controlled, extraneous, parameters), evaluate model scale and various
MS and experimental approaches
 Design: understand the nature of the FD problem (dimensional
analysis), select MS and UA methodologies, evaluate physical situation
(understand the MS interaction with the process under investigation),
establish data-acquisition pattern, estimate results, budget, and timeline
 Construction: assembly of individual components and calibration of
instruments (use available standard procedures)
 Debugging: trial runs
 Execution (setup experiments, acquire & process data, UA, analysis)
 Reporting
EFD Process
D a ta D a ta U n c e r ta in ty D a ta
T e st S e t-u p A c q u is tio n R e d u c tio n A n a ly s is
A n a ly s is

P re p a re C o m p a re R e s u lts
F a c ility & S ta tis tic a l E s tim a te B ia s w ith B e n c h m a rk
C o n d itio n s E x p e rim e n ta l A n a ly s is L im its D a ta , C F D ,
P ro c e d u re s a n d /o r A F D

I n itia liz e D a ta D a ta R e d u c tio n E s tim a te E v a lu a te

In s ta ll M o d e l A c q u is itio n E q u a tio n s P r e c is io n F lu id P h y s ic s
S o f tw a r e L im its

E s tim a te
R u n T e sts & P re p a re
C a lib r a tio n T o ta l
A c q u ire D a ta R ep o rt
U n c e r ta in ty

P re p a re
M e asu re m en t S to re D a ta
S y ste m s
Measurement Systems
 MS components: facilities, instrumentation, operational
environment, data acquisition, data reduction
Measurement Systems
 MS behavior:
Initial condition
y(0)

Measurement
system
Input signal Output signal
F(t) y(t)

 Zero-order systems: y (t )  KF  t 
(no inertia or damping)
 First-order systems: y  t   y  t   KF  t 
(inertia)
1 2
 Second-order systems: y
  t   y  t   y  t   KF  t 
n2
n
(inertia and damping)
Measurement Systems
 Facilities
 Scales: small-, model-, and full-scale (in-situ experiments)

 Selection of the model scale: governed by similitude

analysis
 Special considerations:
 similitude distortion (geometric, kinematic, dynamic)
 scale-induced effects (test of family of models)
 facility-induced effects (wall interference, model-induced
perturbation, replication of boundary conditions)
Measurement Systems
 Instrumentation
 Components: sensors, transducers, signal conditioning, display
 Calibration: trace of the instrument accuracy to a primary or secondary standards
(end-to-end procedure)
 Selection:
 function of the nature of the measured physical quantity (mono, multi-phase,
scalar, vector, static, fluctuating, local, field)
 function of temporal and spatial scales of the flow
 satisfaction of the UA requirements
 minimization of flow-sensor and flow-facility interferences
Measurement Systems
 Environmental conditions
 Control MS parameters and variables
 Document MS parameters, operating conditions, and test
observations in chronological order
 Quantify characteristics for MS noise, interference, drift (e.g.,
temperature increase during the experiments)
 Use checks to guard against unnoticed, unwanted, and
hazardous changes in the instrumentation and operating
conditions

Armfield table-top experiment (armfield.co.uk) Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Measurement Systems
 Data Acquisition (digital)
 General scheme (one channel):

 Current trends: multi-channel, microprocessor-controlled

 Special considerations:
 Correlate sampling type, sampling frequency (Nyquist criterion),
and sampling time with the dynamic content of the signal
 Correlate the resolution for the A/D converters (bias error = ± ½
LSB) with the magnitude of the signal
 Document through calibration or manufacturer’s specs: system-
sensor, quantization, saturation, and conversion (hysteresis, gain,
linearity, zero) errors
Measurement Systems

 Data acquisition optimization:

 Select sufficient number of variables to be measured (at least two
concomitant methods for estimating the result)
 Minimize and control experimental parameters
 Ensure that the measured variable is the only dependent process
variable
 Ensure that instrument sensor responds only to the variable to be
measured
 Minimize probe-to-output path of the signal
 Randomize the effect of extraneous variables
Measurement Systems

 Procedures:
 Adoption of international standard EFD procedures (e.g., wind-
tunnel AIAA standard S-071-1995)
 Use concomitant methods for measurement of the main variables
 Adopt a comprehensive scheme for controlling the MS operation and
environmental conditions
 Establish chronological sequence for MS operation (data acquisition,
reduction, storage)
 Establish appropriate number of test replications and density for
measured data points to fulfill EFD and UA requirements
 Adopt a random sequence for the data acquisition
 Set appropriate test scheme to counteract MS noise (e.g., time
between replications longer than the period of variation in the
extraneous variables), interference, drift in facility and instrument
operation
Measurement Systems
0.10
F ilte re d P I V da ta
4 th - ord e r re gre ssio n cu rve fit
F S o f cu rve fit
T h e ory
0.05

c
U
- 0.00
U

-0.05

z= -2 5 mm, (i,j) = (1 ,1 )
-0.10
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
x (m)

 Data Reduction

Components: data-reduction equations, curve fitting,
interpolations, data visualization

Special considerations:
 Eliminate conceptual bias errors: verify data-reduction
equations and algorithms for parameter estimation
 Use spectral analysis (discrete Fourier transform) to reconstruct
the amplitude and frequency of the measured signals; check for
appropriateness of the selection of the instrument
characteristics
 Check for stability of the statistics (first and second order) and
establish the appropriate sample size for reporting the data
 Use least-square method for curvefitting and determine
regression uncertainty
Measurement Systems

 Real-Time Data Acquisition Systems

 Labview is a programming software used for data acquisition,
instrument control, data reduction and visualization
 Graphical programming language that uses icons instead of text
 Allows to build user interfaces with a set of tools and objects
 The user interface is called the front panel and a block diagram
controls the front panel
 The program is written on the block diagram and the front panel is
used to control and run the program.
Measurement Systems
LabVIEW - objects
Measurement Systems

LabVIEW
assembled objects

Block
diagram

Front panel
 EFD Validation
Uncertainty Analysis (UA)= Data Quality= Confidence in the reported results
Standardized UA: rigorous methodology for uncertainty assessment using statistical
and engineering concepts

E LE M EN TA L
ERRO R SO UR CES

IN D IV ID U A L
1 2 J M EASUREM ENT
SYSTEM S

X X X M EASUREM ENT
1 2 J O F I N D IV ID U A L
B , P B , P B , P V A R IA B L E S
1 1 2 2 J J

D A T A R E D U C T IO N
r = r ( X , X ,......, X ) E Q U A T IO N
1 2 J

r E X P E R IM E N T A L
B , P R E S U LT
r r
EFD Validation
 Conduct uncertainty analysis for the results:
 Identify and estimate errors considering all the steps of the
measurement process and the environmental factors
 Use 95% confidence large-sample (multiple tests) uncertainty

methodology
 EFD result: A ±UA 2.1
Experimental Result (UA= 3%)

 Benchmark or EFD 2.0 Benchmark data (UB = 1.5% )

data: B ± UB 1.9

 Define Result R
1.8

1.7
E = B- A
1.6

UE2 = UA2+UB2 1.5

 Validation: 1.4

1.3
Validated data Data not validated

|E| < UE 20 25 30 35 40 45

Independent variable X i
Reporting Results
 Report types: oral, written, exec summary, lab report, formal report,
journal articles, tutorial reports
 Report format: tabular, graphic, text, mathematical expression
 Report general outline:
 Abstract
 Introduction (purpose, background, theoretical considerations)
 Experimental program (test design, measurement systems – facilities,
instrumentation, operational environment, data acquisition, data
reduction- experimental procedure)
 Analysis (results, uncertainty analysis, comparison, interpretation)
 Discussion (conclusions, recommendations)
 Acknowledgements
 References
 Appendix materials
Reporting Results

 Hints for graphs:

 Use non-dimensional coordinates for reporting results (for
generalization purposes)
 Independent variables on x axis, dependent variables on y axis
 Select proper type for coordinates (linear, semilog, log-log)
 Use symbols for the EFD data; use lines for benchmark data (CFD,
reference, analytical, theoretical)
 Plot results, total uncertainties and confidence level
 Graphs should be stand-alone presentation elements:
 Label plots, axes, and provide units for the plotted variables
 Insert legends for graphs (direct on graph, indirect & explanations)
 Use visualization software packages for display (including animation) of
multi-variable dependencies