METABOLISME

SEGALA PROSES REAKSI KIMIA YANG

TERJADI DI DALAM MAKHLUK HIDUP,
MULAI DARI YANG BERSEL SATU
SAMPAI YANG SUSUNAN TUBUHNYA
SANGAT KOMPLEKS



A metabolic pathway has many steps
That begin with a specific molecule and end
with a product
That are each catalyzed by a specific enzyme

Enzyme 1 Enzyme 2 Enzyme 3
A
B C D
Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3
Starting
molecule
Product
Catabolic pathways
Break down complex molecules into simpler
compounds
Release energy
contoh : respirasi seluler

Anabolic pathways
Build complicated molecules from simpler
ones
Consume energy
contoh : Fotosintesis


Energy
Is the capacity to cause change
Exists in various forms, of which some can
perform work
Kinetic energy
Is the energy associated with motion
Potential energy
Is stored in the location of matter
Includes chemical energy stored in molecular
structure

Energy can be converted From one form to
another


On the platform, a diver
has more potential energy.
Diving converts potential
energy to kinetic energy.
Climbing up converts kinetic
energy of muscle movement
to potential energy.
In the water, a diver has
less potential energy.
Figure 8.2
Thermodynamics

Is the study of energy transformations
first law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed
Energy cannot be created or destroyed

Second law of thermodynamics:
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the
disorder (entropy) of the universe. For example, disorder
is added to the cheetahs surroundings in the form of
heat and the small molecules that are the by-products of
metabolism.


Figure 8.3
Second law of thermodynamics: Every energy transfer or transformation increases
the disorder (entropy) of the universe. For example, disorder is added to the cheetahs
surroundings in the form of heat and the small molecules that are the by-products
of metabolism.
(b)
Heat
co
2

H
2
O
+
Living systems
Increase the entropy of the universe
Use energy to maintain order
A living systems free energy
Is energy that can do work under cellular
conditions
The change in free energy, G during a
biological process
Is related directly to the enthalpy change (H)
and the change in entropy

G = H TS
Exergonic and Endergonic
Reactions in Metabolism
An exergonic reaction
Proceeds with a net release of free energy
and is spontaneous
Figure 8.6
Reactants
Products
Energy
Progress of the reaction
Amount of
energy
released
(G <0)
F
r
e
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

(a) Exergonic reaction: energy released
An endergonic reaction
Is one that absorbs free energy from its
surroundings and is nonspontaneous
Figure 8.6
Energy
Products
Amount of
energy
released
(G>0)
Reactants
Progress of the reaction
F
r
e
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

(b) Endergonic reaction: energy required

Light energy
ECOSYSTEM
CO
2
+ H
2
O
Photosynthesis
in chloroplasts
Cellular respiration
in mitochondria
Organic
molecules
+ O
2

ATP
powers most cellular work
Heat
energy Figure 9.2
The Structure and Hydrolysis of
ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Provides energy for cellular functions
Figure 8.8
O
O O O
CH
2

H
OH OH
H


N
H

H

O
N
C
HC
N
C
C
N
NH
2
Adenine
Ribose
Phosphate groups
O
O
O
O

O
O
-
- - -
CH
Energy is released from ATP
When the terminal phosphate bond is broken
Figure 8.9
P
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
H
2
O
+ Energy
Inorganic phosphate Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
P P
P P P
i

(c) Chemical work: ATP phosphorylates key reactants
P
Membrane
protein
Motor protein
P
i

Protein moved
(a) Mechanical work: ATP phosphorylates motor proteins
ATP
(b) Transport work: ATP phosphorylates transport proteins
Solute
P P
i

transported Solute
Glu
Glu

NH
3

NH
2
P
i

P
i

+ +
Reactants: Glutamic acid
and ammonia
Product (glutamine)
made
ADP
+
P
Figure 8.11
RESPIRASI SELULER
PROSES PENGURAIAN GLUKOSA ATAU
BAHAN ORGANIK LAINNYA (LEMAK
DAN PROTEIN) YANG MENGHASILKAN
ENERGI
MERUPAKAN REAKSI OKSIDASI
REDUKSI
HSL OKSIDASI SEMPURNA DARI
GLUKOSA ADALAH ENERGI, CO
2,
DAN
H
2
O
In oxidation
A substance loses electrons, or is oxidized
In reduction
A substance gains electrons, or is reduced
During cellular respiration
Glucose is oxidized and oxygen is reduced
Respirasi adalah reaksi Redoks
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + energi (ATP)
oksidasi
reduksi

Electrons from organic compounds
Are usually first transferred to NAD
+
, a
coenzyme

NAD
+


H
O
O
O O

O
O O

O
O
O
P
P
CH
2

CH
2

HO OH
H
H
HO OH
HO
H
H
N
+

C NH
2

H
N
H
NH
2

N
N
Nicotinamide
(oxidized form)
NH
2
+ 2[H]
(from food)
Dehydrogenase
Reduction of NAD
+

Oxidation of NADH
2 e

+ 2 H
+

2 e

+ H
+

NADH
O
H H
N
C
+
Nicotinamide
(reduced form)
N
Figure 9.4
If electron transfer is not stepwise
A large release of energy occurs
As in the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to
form water

(a) Uncontrolled reaction
F
r
e
e

e
n
e
r
g
y
,

G

H
2
O
Explosive
release of
heat and light
energy
Figure 9.5 A
H
2
+
1
/
2
O
2

The electron transport chain
Passes electrons in a series of steps instead of in one
explosive reaction
Uses the energy from the electron transfer to form ATP

2 H
1
/
2
O
2
(from food via NADH)
2 H
+
+ 2 e

2 H
+
2 e

H
2
O
1
/
2
O
2
Controlled
release of
energy for
synthesis of
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
F
r
e
e

e
n
e
r
g
y
,

G

(b) Cellular respiration
+
Figure 9.5 B
MITOKONDRIA

PROSES RESPIRASI SELULER
RESPIRASI SELULER DENGAN BAHAN
BAKAR GLUKOSA MELIBATKAN 3
TAHAP METABOLIK, YAITU:
1. GLIKOLISIS
2. SIKLUS KREBS
3. TRANSPORT ELEKTRON
C-C-C-C-C-C (Glukosa)


2 C- C- C (Asam piruvat)

CO
2

2 C-C (asetil CoA)


2 C C0
2
Glikolisis (pada sitoplasma)
Dekarboksilasi oksidatif
SIKLUS KREB (pada mitokondria)

Figure 9.6
Electrons
carried
via NADH
Glycolsis
Glucose Pyruvate
ATP
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Electrons carried
via NADH and
FADH2
Citric
acid
cycle
Oxidative
phosphorylation:
electron
transport and
chemiosmosis
ATP
ATP
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Oxidative
phosphorylation
Mitochondrion
Cytosol
GLIKOLISIS

Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
Glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate
H
H
H
H
H
OH
OH
HO
HO
CH
2
OH
H
H
H
H
O
H
OH
HO
OH
P
CH
2
O P
H
O
H
HO
HO
H
HO
CH
2
OH
P O CH
2
O CH
2
O P
HO
H
HO
H
OH
O P CH
2

C O
CH
2
OH
H
C
CHOH
CH
2

O
O P
ATP
ADP
Hexokinase
Glucose
Glucose-6-phosphate
Fructose-6-phosphate
ATP
ADP
Phosphoglucoisomerase
Phosphofructokinase
Fructose-
1, 6-bisphosphate
Aldolase
Isomerase
Glycolysis
1
2
3
4
5
CH
2
OH
Oxidative
phosphorylation
Citric
acid
cycle
Figure 9.9 A

2 NAD
+

NADH 2
+ 2 H
+

Triose phosphate
dehydrogenase
2 P
i

2
P C
CHOH
O
P
O
CH
2
O
2 O

1, 3-Bisphosphoglycerate
2 ADP
2 ATP
Phosphoglycerokinase
CH
2
O P
2
C
CHOH
3-Phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglyceromutase
O

C
C
CH
2
OH
H O P
2-Phosphoglycerate
2 H
2
O
2
O

Enolase
C
C
O
P O
CH
2

Phosphoenolpyruvate
2 ADP
2 ATP
Pyruvate kinase
O

C
C
O
O
CH
3

2
6
8
7
9
10
Pyruvate
O
Figure 9.8 B
Glycolysis consists of two major phases
Energy investment phase
Energy payoff phase

Glycolysis Citric
acid
cycle
Oxidative
phosphorylation
ATP
ATP ATP
2 ATP
4 ATP
used
formed
Glucose
2 ATP + 2 P
4 ADP + 4 P
2 NAD
+
+ 4 e
-
+ 4 H
+
2 NADH + 2 H
+

2 Pyruvate + 2 H
2
O
Energy investment phase
Energy payoff phase
Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 H
2
O
4 ATP formed 2 ATP used 2 ATP
2 NAD
+
+ 4 e

+ 4 H
+
2 NADH
+ 2 H
+

Figure 9.8
MALAT-ASPARTAT SHUTTLE

GLISEROL-3-PHOSPHAT
SHUTTLE

Before the citric acid cycle can begin
Pyruvate must first be converted to acetyl
CoA, which links the cycle to glycolysis
CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION
NADH + H
+
NAD
+
2
3 1
CO
2
Coenzyme A Pyruvate
Acetyle CoA
S CoA
C
CH
3

O
Transport protein
O

O
O
C
C
CH
3

Figure 9.10
SIKLUS KREBS


Acetyl CoA
NADH
Oxaloacetate
Citrate
Malate
Fumarate
Succinate
Succinyl
CoA
a-Ketoglutarate
Isocitrate
Citric
acid
cycle
S CoA
CoA SH
NADH
NADH
FADH
2

FAD
GTP GDP
NAD
+

ADP
P
i

NAD
+

CO
2

CO
2

CoA SH
CoA SH
CoA S

H
2
O
+ H
+
+ H
+

H
2
O
C
CH
3

O
O C COO

CH
2

COO

COO

CH
2

HO C COO

CH
2

COO

COO

COO

CH
2

HC COO

HO CH
COO

CH
CH
2

COO

HO
COO

CH
HC
COO

COO

CH
2

CH
2

COO

COO

CH
2

CH
2

C O
COO

CH
2

CH
2

C O
COO

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Glycolysis Oxidative
phosphorylation
NAD
+

+ H
+
ATP
Citric
acid
cycle
Figure 9.12
TRANSFER ELEKTRON


Oxidative
phosphorylation.
electron transport
and chemiosmosis
Glycolysis
ATP ATP ATP
Inner
Mitochondrial
membrane

H
+

H
+

H
+

H
+

H
+

ATP
P
i

Protein complex
of electron
carners
Cyt c
I
II
III
IV
(Carrying electrons
from, food)
NADH
+
FADH
2

NAD
+

FAD
+
2 H
+
+
1
/
2
O
2
H
2
O
ADP +
Electron transport chain
Electron transport and pumping of protons (H
+
),
which create an H
+
gradient across the membrane
Chemiosmosis
ATP synthesis powered by the flow
Of H
+
back across the membrane
ATP
synthase
Q
Oxidative phosphorylation
Intermembrane
space
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
Mitochondrial
matrix
Figure 9.15

H
2
O
O
2
NADH
FADH2
FMN
FeS FeS
FeS
O
FAD
Cyt b
Cyt c
1

Cyt c
Cyt a
Cyt a
3

2 H
+
+
1

2

I
II
III
IV
Multiprotein
complexes
0
10
20
30
40
50
F
r
e
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

(
G
)

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

O
2

(
k
c
l
/
m
o
l
)

Figure 9.13


2 ADP + 2 P
1
2 ATP
Glycolysis Glucose
2 NAD
+
2 NADH
2 Pyruvate
2 Acetaldehyde 2 Ethanol
(a) Alcohol fermentation
2 ADP + 2 P
1
2 ATP
Glycolysis Glucose
2 NAD
+
2 NADH
2 Lactate
(b) Lactic acid fermentation
H
H OH
CH
3

C
O

O C
C O
CH
3

H
C O
CH
3

O

C O
C O
CH
3

O
C O
C OH H
CH
3

CO
2
2
Figure 9.17