Interference of waves

Coherent waves must have a constant phase difference.

This means they must have the same frequency. Often
the phase difference is zero but it doesn't have to be.
Light is emitted by electron transitions within individual
atoms. Thus waves from the same source will have the
same frequency but will not be coherent as the phase
difference will vary. (Except for laser light)
For coherence the wave must come from the same
position on the light source division of wavefront.
Or from the same wave which is split in two by reflection
division of amplitude
For interference in air (vacuum)
Constructive path difference = n n = 0,1,2
Destructive path difference = ( n + )
For interference in another medium we have to use the
optical path difference.
Optical path length is
the distance for the
same number of
wavelengths in a
vacuum
water
m m
(m
The two rays have different geometrical path lengths but
have the same optical path length. Ie they contain the
same number of wavelengths.
This means a lens does not affect the phase difference
between rays
A
B
Refractive index n =
vacuum

material
For interference in any material

Constructive optical path difference = m m = 0,1,2

Destructive optical path difference = (m + )

So
vacuum
= n
material

Optical path length = n x geometrical path length
Phase difference = 2 x optical path difference

vacuum
Phase Change on Reflection
air glass
glass air
Optically more dense
ie. at a higher refractive
index
radians phase change
Optically less dense
ie. at a lower refractive
index
0 radians phase change

Examples of interference by division of amplitude
1. Parallel sided thin film
d oil
air
water
n=1
n=1.45
n=1.33
1 2
At each boundary some light is
reflected and some refracted.

Someone looking at rays 1 and
2 would see an interference
pattern. This is caused by path
difference between the rays.
d oil
air
water
n=1
n=1.45
n=1.33
1 2
If we assume the angle of incidence to
be near 0 degrees, then the extra
distance travelled by ray 2 will be 2d.
This means that the optical path
difference will be equal to 2nd
However, there will be a phase change
of /2 at the first boundary (ray 1),
since the ray is being reflected by a
layer of greater refractive index
The total optical path difference will be equal to?
= 2nd + /2
For constructive interference the path difference must be equal to a
whole number multiple of wavelengths
2nd +/2 = m
2nd = m /2 = (m + )
2n
) (m
d
2
1

For destructive interference the path difference must be equal to an
odd number of half wavelengths.
2nd + /2 = (m + )
2nd = m + /2 /2
2n
m
d
For destructive interference, m=1 for minimum thickness.
Example
Calculate the minimum thickness of oil which will produce destructive
interference in green light of wavelength 525nm.
2n
m
d
m 10 1.81
1.45 2
10 525 1
d
7
9

Blooming non-reflective coatings

If no light is reflected it will all be transmitted.

air
coating
glass
For glass with a refractive index
of 1.5 you would need a film of
refractive index 1.22.
Also this film must be durable.
As the refractive index of a material varies with frequency,
the coating will only be nonreflective to one frequency.

The non-reflective frequency is usually the middle of the
visible spectrum so bloomed surfaces look purplish as
some blue and red light will be reflected.


2. Thin air wedge used to measure small thicknesses
Angle for the wedge is very small.
x
t
Monochromatic
light source
D Eye or travelling microscope
A
B
C

The path difference between the two rays ABD and ACD is
2t.
3 Newtons Rings
Glass plate at 45
o
Glass block optically flat x
A
B
Extended
source
Fringes are concentric circles.
Reflection at A zero phase change.
Reflection at B radians phase change

Destructive interference 2t = m m = 0,1,2
Constructive interference 2t = (m + 1/2)

Fringe at centre is dark.

t
B
Division by wavefront
Monochromatic
Source eg
sodium lamp
Narrow
slit
gives
circular
waves
Diffraction
grating
where
coherent
waves hit
dsin = m from Higher
Young's Slits Experiment
The diagram below shows light from a single source of
monochromatic light incident on a double slit. The light
diffracts at each slit and the overlapping diffraction patterns
produce interference.
The first bright fringe is observed at P. Angle PMO is
N is a point on BP such that NP = AP
Since P is the first bright fringe BN =
For small values of , AN cuts MP at almost 90
0
giving
angle MAQ = and hence angle =
Again providing is very small, sin = tan = in
radians

From triangle BAN: = / d
and from triangle PMO: = x / D
So / d = x / D

Therefore
d
D
x
Two points to note:

1. This formula only applies if x<<D, which gives
small. This is likely to be true for light waves but not
for microwaves.

2. The position of the fringes is dependent on the
wavelength. If white light is used we can expect
overlapping colours either side of a central white
maximum. The red, with the longer wavelength, will
be the furthest from this white maximum
(xred > xviolet since red > violet).
Example
A laser beam is incident on two narrow slits of separation
(0.250 0.002)mm. An interference pattern is produced on a
screen (2.455 0.005)m from the slits. The spacing across
ten fringes is measured as (62.0 0.5)mm.
(a) Calculate the wavelength of the light.






(b) State the uncertainty in the wavelength and express the
wavelength as (value absolute uncertainty).


x = 62.0x10
-3
/10
x= D/d
62.0x10
-3
/10 = x2.455/0.250x10
-3
=631nm
Using % uncertainties:
Uncertainty in d =(0.002/0.250)x100=0.8%
Uncertainty in D=(0.005/ 2.455)x100=0.2%
Uncertainty in x=(0.5/62.0)x100=0.8%
The uncertainty in D can be ignored since it is less then one
third of the others.

Total % uncertainty is = ( 0.8
2
+ 0.8
2
) = 1.1%

1.1% of 631nm = 7nm so wavelength = (631 7)nm

(d) State, with a reason, if the fringe spacing increases, decreases
or remains the same if red laser light is replaced by a Helium-
Cadmium laser with a wavelength of 422nm.



(e) State one way in which you might be able to improve the
accuracy of the experiment, give a reason.
Measure across more fringes, for example twenty fringes. This
would reduce the percentage uncertainty in x.

Since the wavelength has decreased the fringe spacing
decreases, since x