OCT Summary

2014.4.4
Chap 1,4
1. Introduction OCT
An optical imaging tool which has been used to cross-sectional
images of the internal microstructure in biological tissues in vivo.
2High (High resolution-Micrometer resolution(1-15m) & High
speed(high scanning speed-It makes possible to observe live cell)
Long wavelength light(low coherence)
2-D & 3-D image
Disadvantage -> CT MRI .
3. General interference law for partially coherent light
I(k) (k-domain=2/:wave# photo current) IFFT
-> z(depth information)-domain
we get interference signal, its -domain. when it is directly
converted from wavelength to wave#(k-domain), the interference
signal has nonlinear sampling. It makes axial resolution
broadening. So we have to need resampling procedure. (1. spline
interpolation method 2. a zero-filling interpolation method) *
Interpolation method &
| |

+ + =
n
s r n r s s r
x x k k I k I k I k I k I ) ( cos ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( ) ( ) ( o
( ) t f
f
I I I I t I
D r s r s
t
t t
2 cos
2 ln 2
exp 2 ) (
2
(
(

|
.
|

\
| A
+ + = TD-OCT
FD-OCT
2. OCT system main parameter
Resolution
Penetration depth
Sensitivity (SNR=power)
Image acquisition rate(frame rate)
2-(1) Resolution (& Penetration depth)
Axial resolution is defined by
(1) half of the coherence length
(2) center wave length and FWHM(full-width at half-maximum=-3dB
bandwidth) of the optical source ->Power/2 bandwidth

Lateral resolution is related to spot size focused on in the sample ( spot
size center wavelength, beam size, focal length and depth of
field(2*Rayleigh length )
->spot size short focal length large
numerical aperture(NA) . The small spot size the depth of
focus sample image contrast .
-> so, OCT sample (penetration depth
) low NA .

The Depth range(Zmax) is limited by the resolution of the spectrometer
(or sampling resolution in SS-OCT)
-> according to the Nyquist sampling theorem the sampling frequency
has to be twice as large as the highest frequency in the spectrum
for example, interference signal band width > 2*spectrometer
resolution(band width) analog signal digitalize
nyquist frequency

2-(2) Optical Source
An optical source determines performance such as (1) penetration depth (2)
resolution (3) image quality
OCT -> the near infrared(NIR) region(700nm~1500nm),called the optical window
source . Because it has lower the absorption coefficient of water and blood
than the other region.
-> Therefore biological tissue information .
And the high optical power of the source penetration depth and SNR of the
OCT .

OCT image resolution source center wavelength FWHM .
Axial resolution shorter center wavelength and broader bandwidth source
.

2-(2) Side lobe
When the optical source has the shape of non-Gaussian,
Ideal gaussian shape Fourier transform
gaussian shape. real side
lobe
Optical source sidelobe mainlobe
coherence length axial resolution
. (axial resloution=coherence length/2)
far ghost image
image quality .
Ghost image? Mirror image, IFFT
. Optical source
Ghost image side lobe
Main beam DC line
, 2 ghost image
.
Source gaussian shape
-> power
Full-range technique ( )
- . IFFT
. image depth .
2-(3) Signal-to-Noise Ratio, Noise source
Shot noise : from current fluctuation (: background light and the
dark current in the detector)->SD TD noise TD
.
Thermal noise : from random thermal particle motion
1/f noise : a characteristic noise in active devices, arises in the low
frequency region
Relative intensity noise(RIN,) : fluctuation in optical power from
the source and from the mechanical movement of the optical mounts
(real fluctuation .->optical mount
power )

* noise .

2-(3) SNR in TD
SNR=signal/noise= the signal power from a perfectly reflecting
mirror/the weakest sample reflectivity(signal power noise level )
SNR 1/NEB
NEB : the noise equivalent bandwidth of the signal bandpass = the
electrical bandwidth(f) for detection of the interferometric signal
f = 2*Vs/0 (Vs : reference mirror speed, : optical source
bandwidth , 0 : the center wavelength of the optical source )
-> so! NEB= f = 2*Vs/0 , NEBVs
-> Vs& NEB SNR
2-(3) SNR in FD
SD-OCT system -> SNR (Shot noise ?)
SD-OCT SNR depends on M(the # of illuminated detector= pixel# of the CCD
camera)
Ex)1024pixel CCD camera TD OCT 24dB
- SNRsd the exposure time
SS-OCT -> SD-OCT SNR exposure time A-line scan rate fA
The optical power and the SNR of OCT penetration depth .
-> optical power can make images with deeper penetration depth in both TD&FD.
The high optical power increases the SNR
-> ! In FD the SNR decreases with depth due to the finite resolution of the
spectrometer. -> so! High resolution spectrometer
3. PS-OCT

4. Advanced Frequency Domain OCT
SD-OCT 800nm wavelength region (1300nm InGaAs line
scan camera acquisition )->Recently we have used 1000nm
wavelength source. It has higher image quality than 800nm when we
observe under retina area.
1300nm wavelength SS-OCT(using a frequency-swept
laser,16kHz and 20kHz) .
(1) To obtain high-speed imaging and
(2) To enable dual-balanced detection to eliminate the DC
autocorrelation noise over SD-OCT(signal vertical, horizontal
.)
Ultra-high-speed swept source(>200kHz)using the Fourier domain mode
locking(FDML) method ( ring laser ) -> mode locking
,
4-(1) Experimental setup of the SD-OCT
SLD(superluminescent diodes/compact&inexpensive) : 0=1310nm,
=FWHM=86nm, power=7mW -> z=(2ln2*
0
2
)/(3.14* )=270nm
4-(1)-a Diffraction grating
4-(1)-b
CCD camera 12.5MHz, 12.5Mclocks/1sec
For 1024pixel 1line(A-scan) data minimum 266clocks .
46990lines/sec (line rate) (B-scan) 1image 512 lines
-> 1image/10.9ms, 46990/512=91/1sec(frame rate)

x-galvo , trigger T
current linear galvo
mirrorcurrent linear
B-scan Focus spot
.

y-galvo 3D image scan

4-(1)-c wavelength calibration
We tilted the reference mirror and obtained the spectrum with an optical
spectrum analyzer(OSA)->reference mirror reference
mirror the intensity profile .
4-(1)-c wavelength calibration
1. Grating equation
- Simulation results
2.Regression equation
(=Wave length, n=pixel number)
3d order polynomial fitted results
4-(1)-c
I(k) (k-domain=2/:wave# photo current) IFFT
-> z(depth information)-domain
we get interference signal, its -domain. when it is
directly converted from wavelength to wave#, the
interference signal has nonlinear sampling. It makes
axial resolution broadening. So we have to need
resampling procedure. (1. spline interpolation method
2. a zero-filling interpolation method)
* Interpolation method &
4-(1)-d System performances
The full wavelength range of our spectrometer =
150nm
pixel 0.145nm . 150/1024
-> spectral resolution
The depth range = 2.9mm
The sensitivity of SD-OCT = 108.7dB

4-(1)-d
Axial resolution (14.05m/8.8m in air y)
-> this difference can be attributed to the errors in the linear
rescaling procedure from -domain to k-domain
(the high axial pixel size)
Frame rate 91fps/15fps (frame rate) the real frame rate calculation
time for linear interpolation and fourier transformation was
needed.
Solution : The multi-thread programming method (
, ,

4-(2) Swept-Source OCT
Advantage
The rise time of a photodiode is faster than the CCD chips.
->improved Data acquisition speed
Interference signal grating
detector. Simpler system
OCT image mirror image . ?
~?
A dual balanced detector ( photo diode 2 .
. real Signal ,
noise .)
-> 800nm range optical source . Water absorption
eye imaging .

Disadvantage
Narrow wavelength scanning range
FWHM<20nm -> resolution .
-> semiconductor optical amplifier(SOA)
4-(2)-a External-Line Cavity Swept Source at 850nm
Our swept source OCT has the optical wavelength selection filter with
Littman configuration
Disadvantage of Original Littman configuration
-> the output beam is the zeroth-order reflection from the grating at
grazing incidence because the diffraction grating works as output
coupling in addition to wavelength selection
-> so! OCT system alignment too sensitive.
Our system -> 1x2 coupler(30:70)
.
-> PC(polarization controller) Gaussian profile
. Polarization sensitivity of the
Intracavity componet fiber
wavelength-dependent loss
4-(2)-b The optical spectra of the swept source output
SS in Ref(ring-cavity) Our SS(line-cavity)
Center wavelength 815-870nm 850nm
FWHN 0.085nm 0.068nm
Tuning range 55nm 68nm
Sweeping speed 43.2kHz
(polygon scanner)
200Hz(galvometer)
Table. Specification our swept source compared with other groups swept source
Fig (a) 0.063nm with a fixed scanning mirror spectral width (b) center wave length 849nm
(c) Optical source
(d) t swept source wavelength
4-(2)-c Images using the swept-source OCT
1000samples/an A-scan
Reference arm ND(neutral density/-20dB) filter
-> to reduce source intensity noise (RIN?)->
SNR + the sample attenuation constant(40dB) -
> ?
1000 point sample-length -> 1024 poing sample-
length by zero-padding ->rescaled to the linear
frequency domain by using a simple calibration
method ->IFFT-> A-scan 512data point
1.03mm depth position/z=5.5m
Terminology
Cornea
Iris
Lens
Optical nerve
blind spot
Retina
Pupil
Chroid
Sclera


Eye OCT images, anterior & posterior
Optical coherence tomography :
principles and application
A.F. Fercher
2014.4.7~

1. Introduction
Two fundamental optical tomography technique.
(1) Diffuse optical tomography (DOT)
(2) Optical diffraction tomography (ODT)
-> OCT is physically founded on ODT

* ODT uses single scattered light and derives
tomography images by the Fourier diffraction
projection theorem.

1.1. Basic schemes
LCI is based on the occurrence of fringes if the optical path lengths of reference and sample beams
coincide within the coherence gate, which is of the size of the so-called round trip coherence
length : lc -> resolution
Some out standing properties of OCT
(1) depth resolution is decoupled from transverse resolution
(2) depth resolution in the histological 1m range is possible
(3) the interferometric technique provides highly dynamic range and sensitivity(>100dB)
(4) it is important to note that in medical terms LCI and OCT are non-invasive techniques that yield
in vivo data
1.2. Mathematical treatment
Mutual coherence function : correlation of electric fields at
different position and also at difference time
<E(x
1
,t+z)E*(x
2
,t)>
Complex degree of coherence(mutual coherence normalized)
U(t) the photoelectric signal
LCI signal photo detector .
The envelope of the LCI signal is generated by rectification of the photoelectric ac
signal followed by low-pass filtering/ amplitude and phase of the photoelectric ac
signal are determined using lock in amplifier.
2.1. Single scattering and optical tomography
OCT deviate in several respects from that more known CT
concept:
(1) DOT uses highly diffracted and scattered radiation (straight ray
propagation can only be assumed for a fraction of the photons)
(2) OCT images are synthesized from a series of adjacent
interferometric depth-scans performed by a straight propagating
low-coherence probing beam(decoupling of transversal resolution
from depth resolution)
(3) OCT uses backscattering
Using additional wavelengths gives access to additional depth
components. -> wave length diversity is used in LCI. In LCI light
scattered back in the opposite direction of the illuminating beam
is used for depth localization of light re-emitting sites.
2.1. Single scattering and optical tomography

2.2. Multiple scattered sample light
Only single scattered light is useful to derive structural
information about the underlying scattering potential.
However! Multiple scattering in samples is
important!
Absorption coeff., scattering coeff., concentration of
particles in solution, probing depth, SNR
-> LCI and OCT probing depths are not only
dependent on absorption and scattering coefficient
but also scattering anisotropy(), aperture of the
sample lens, and, in particular, on the sample
distribution between lens and coherence gate.
-> transport theory
2.3. Probing beam
Single scattered light detected by the photo detector will be limited to
photons scattered at the coherent probe volume.
Probe volume = the depth of the coherence gate
It is the path length of single and double scattered photons that
determines the probing depth
Probing depth the # of photons multiple scattering detected by the
photodetector -> time-coherence & space coherence-> incoherent
diffuse photon
2.4. Sensitivity
Lower power -> receiver noise sensitivity
High power -> excess noise sensitivity
.
2.5. Speckle(noise)
The sample wave is the sum of many wavelets
arising at backscattering sites within the
coherent volume.
-> random phase
Ideally, standard LCI and OCT only relate with
the interferogram G
SR
(heterodyne or related
techniques)
2.5. Resolution
OCT depth resolution
The FWHM diameter
Depth of focus
4. Low-coherence interferometry and OCT
Fourier-domain OCT
As(K) backscattered field amplitude is obtained either by spectral interferometry
techniques or by wavelength tuning technique.
Fs(z) FT{As(K)}
Spectrometric measurement
two basic technique (1) the correlation technique (2) the phase shifting technique
Depth field of view <- the number N of single detector
resolution <- the spectral width K

A specific disadvantage of the correlation technique is that the width of the auto-
correlation of the object structure in object space equals twice the width of the object
structure itself.
5. Functional OCT
We define as morphologic features those which are
related to the geometrical distribution of scalar
scattering and reflection properties of the sample, and
as functional properties those which include additional
function dependent properties
Functional disturbance -> morphological change
Functional properties ( Diagnosis of disease )
(1) blood flow
(2) a change in tissue water content
(3) a change in tissue oxygen pressure
(4) changes in tissue histology and architecture
5.1. Polarization-sensitive OCT
Birefringence(cause phase retardation) in tissue can be caused by two
mechanisms :
(a) intrinsic birefringence caused by anisotropic properties of the
molecule
(b) form birefringence caused by structure anisotropy resulting from
ordered linear structure
-> Form birefringence caused by linear and circular anisotropic proteins,
such as collagen fibres which build up ECM, can be found in many
biological tissues.
-> Form birefringence caused by nerve fibres() oriented in
parallel bundles is used.
( Retina nerve fibre layer/NFL Glaucoma/
-> It is based on retardation caused by birefringence of the
peripapillary retina )
5.1. Polarization-sensitive OCT
Sample reflectivity, envelopes
retardance
5.2. Doppler OCT
Doppler effect
, ( )
.
, .
+ , /=/c (c ) .[ ]
()
Optical Doppler techniques are based on the interference phenomenon if light
scattered by moving particles interferes with a reference beam.
The resulting interferogram beats at the Doppler angular frequency
wD=K*vs ( K : the scattering vector, vs= the velocity of the moving particles) ->
.
Blood velocity measurement at the fundus() of human eye

5.2. Doppler OCT
Fourier-transforming the fringe data
Sequential scan processing
the most severe limitation of the fringe data techniques
-> limited velocity sensitivity
techniques to overcome this are
(1) phase resolved DOCT using sequential depth-scans -> this technique
decouples velocity resolution from spatial resolution
Doppler shift sequential depth-scans sequential frame
scans sample beam phase .







In DOCT the detection bandwidth must be chosen to match the much wider width
corresponding to the range of velocities with the consequence of degrading the
SNR. To overcome that problem, a frequency tracking band-pass filter based on a
modified phase-lock loop has been suggested.
5.3. Wavelength-dependent OCT
Terminology
(1) Power spectral density (PSD)
= distribution of power along the frequency axis, PSD signal autocorrelation signal
FT .
-> autocorrelation? ( ) : X(t) process X(t
1
) x X(t
2
)
R
12
= X(t
1
) x X(t
2
)

(2) Cross correlation density (CSD)
= PSD cross correlation
-> cross correlation? () : ,
R
12
(t) = integral (X
1
(T-)X
2
(t)dt)
Wavelength-dependent images
Quantitative tissue spectroscopy is a diagnostic tool in biomedicine with many
potential and a few implemented application like foetal() brain oxygenation
measurement.
: Beers law( , I=I
0
exp(rcl), l: path
length of light) penetration path length of light . tissue
light penetration back scattering path length .
tissue homogeneous penetration depth position
.
(absorbing substance) Oxy-,deoxy- hemogrobin, cytochrome aa3, NADH, lipids, melania
and other tissue chromophores etc -> optical tissue spectroscopy identify
.
Optical refractometry is a technique for diagnosis various solutions on the basis of the
refractive index
OCT allow the implementation of quantitative tissue spectroscopy

5.3. Wavelength-dependent OCT
Spectrometric OCT(SOCT) <- the FT of the analytic depth-scan interferogram
signal or the cross-power spectrum
The spectral intensity of the light at the interferometer exit is not just the sum of
the spectral intensities of the two interfering beams but depends on the mutual
spectral degree of coherence of the spectral light components.
FT spectrometry (FTS)
Fourier-domain SOCT(spectrometric OCT)
In Fourier-domain OCT in the light exiting the interferometer is dispersed by a
spectrometer to display its spectral distribution on an array-detector
the spectrometric characteristics of the sample were determined from a Morlet
wavelet transform,WT,of the interferogram
-> reducing windowing effects and yields an entire spectrum at each image point.

5.3. Wavelength-dependent OCT
6. Applications of OCT
OCT in Ophthalmology
Other medical fields : OCT biopsy and functional OCT
(1) High resolution OCT in gastroenterology( ) and dermatology(
)
(2) Endoscopic OCT in intra-arterial imaging
(3) PS-OCT in dentistry
(4) spectroscopic OCT in gastroenterology
(5) DOCT in haemostatic therapy
Non-medical OCT
6. Applications of OCT
(1) OCT in Ophthalmology
High transmittance of ocular media
The interferometric sensitivity and precision of OCT which fits quite well the near-
optical quality of many ophthalmological structures.
The independence of depth resolution from sample beam aperture which enable
high sensitivity layer structure recording at the fundus of the eye.

Standard diagnostic indicators of neoplastic changes
(1) Features like accelerated rate of growth( )
(2) mass growth
(3) Local invasion
(4) Lack of differentiation
(5) Anaplsia and metastasis(&)
-> which mainly occur on a sub-cellular level
Methods to increase OCT resolution close to the sub-cellular level
->Using a broad-bandwidth light source