ANGLE MODULATION

In this modulation frequency or phase of carrier is

varied according to the message signal, carrier
amplitude is constant.

It can be classified in to
1.Frequency modulation
2.Phase modulation
Application of angle modulation
1.Radio broadcasting.
2.TV-sound transmission.
3.Cellular radio.
4.Microwave communication.
5.Sattelite communication
Phase Modulation
When mod. signal goes positive, the amount of
phase lag increases with amplitude of
mod.signal.so carrier signal is stretched & or its
freq. reduced.

When mod. Signal is negative,phase shift
becomes leading. so carrier is compressed. So
its freq. increased.

Phase mod. wave is same as the FM.produced
by dx(t)/dt i.e.the derivative of X(t) w.r.t.time
Phase Modulation
We know ec =Ec Cosct -----------------------------1
ec= Ec Cos(2fct+ct) -------------------2
Phase modulation is
S(t) = Ec.Cos[2fct+ Kp.Vm(t) ] --------------------3

Vm(t)=EmCos2fmt ,Kp = Phase sensitivity
S(t) = Ec.Cos[2fct+ Kp Em.Cos2fmt ]

Kp Em = = Phase deviation 180 degree
S(t) = Ec.Cos[2fct+ .Cos2fmt ] ----------------------4


Frequency modulation
The amount by which the carrier signal varies from its
unmodulated value is called as deviation.this deviation
is proportional to the instantaneus value of modulating
signal.

Derivation of FM
From above fig.instantaneus freq. of FM is given by
F = fc[1+k.Vm.Cosmt] -----------------1
Fc = carrier freq., k= proportionality constant
Max.deviation for this signal occures when cosine= 1,under
this condition.the inst.freq. is
f= fc[1 k.Vm ] ------------------2

Max.deviation = fc.k.Vm -------------------3

Inst.signal of FM-signal is v= Asin[ F(c, m) ]=Asin ---------4

F(c, m) is function of carrier & modulating freq.it represents
angle & will be called as for convenience.

is angle traced by the vector A in time t .
The angular velocity is from FM equn.
= c[1+k.Vm.Cosmt] --------------------------------------------5
to find we have to integrate above eqn.
= .dt
= c[1+k.Vm.Cosmt] dt.
= c*1+kVmCosmt] dt
= c(t+ kVmSinmt/m )
= ct+ c.kVmSinmt/m
= ct+ fc.kVmSinmt/fm
= ct+ /fm Sinmt --------------------------------------------------6
put in eqn.4 we get

V =Asin = Asin[ct+ (/fm) Sinmt ) ---------------------------------7

V= A Sin[ct+ mf. Sinmt ] -----------------------------------------------8

Modulation index = mf.= /fm = unit is Radian

It is imp.to note that mod.freq. decreases & mod.voltage ()
remains constant,modulation index increases.
Frequency Spectrum of FM-Wave
From eqn.8 it shows Sine of Sine.it is complex function ,to solve
it we have to use Bessel function (J).eqn.8 can be expanded as

v =A{J0(mf)Sinct
+ J1(mf)[Sin(c + m)t - Sin(c- m)t ]
+ J2(mf)[Sin(c +2m)t - Sin(c- 2m)t ]
+ J3(mf)[Sin(c +3m)t - Sin(c-3m)t ]
+ J4(mf)[Sin(c +4m)t - Sin(c- 4m)t +}

It can be seen that o/p consist of carrier & n-number of pair of
sideband.each preceded by J-coefficient
Formula for Bessel function is
Jn(mf) = (mf/2)[1/n! (mf/2)/1!(n+1) ! + (mf/2)
4
/2!(n+2) !
- (mf/2)
6
/3!(n+ 1)!


To calculate carrier,pair of sideband it is necessary to know the
value of Bessel function.FM has infinite sideband,as well as
carrier.they are seperated from carrier by fm,2fm,3fm .

Bessel function (J Vs modulation index )
Amplitude of Carrier & USB-LSB
Sr.no Modulation
index
Side bands
1 1 3
2 2 4
3 3 6
4 4 7
5 5 8 Max.
The no.of sideband having significant amplitude will increase
with increase in the value of modulation index.
Bandwidth :
Ideally B.W of FM is infinite.because infinite sideband
transmitted ideally.
Practically we have to consider those sideband whose
amplitude is greater than 5% of amplitude of unmodulated
carrier.strength of spectral component depends on M.I.so B.W is
also depends on M.I
B.W = 2 fm x number of significant band ------------------------1
Carsons Rule:
B.W = 2* +fm .max.+ --------------------------------------------------2
it gives correct result if M.I is greater than 6
Power in FM
P= Vc/R
= (Ec/2)/R
P = Ec/2R ----------------------------------------------a
Relation between FM & PM
Eqn.for PM
S(t) = Ec.Cos[c + Kp.Vm(t)]-------------------1
Now for FM is
S(t) = Ec.Cos[c + 2Kf Vm(t)]---------------2

There is little diff.between FM &PM
In FM there is integration of modulating signal so if we
integrate the mod.signal & apply it to i/p of Phase modulator
we will get FM o/p



If we differentiate the mod.signal & apply it to FM-modulator we
get phase modulation


Types of FM
1.Narrow Band FM (NBFM):
The FM with small B.W is known as NBFM.modulation index is mf.
Is small as compared to one radian.
Spectrum is consist of carrier,USB & LSB
Mathematically NBFM is expressed as
Efm =S(t) = EcSinct + mf.Ec/2Sin(c +m)t USB
carrier - mf.Ec/2Sin(c -m)t LSB

Permissible freq.deviation up to 5KHZ.
Used in Police wireless,ambulanceetc
2.Wideband FM (WBFM)
For large value of mf, the FM wave contains carrier & infinite number
of sidebands located symmetrically around the carrier.
Such FM have infinite B.W & hence it is WBFM.

Modulation index of WBFM is greater than 1.max. permissible
deviation is 75 KHZ.

used in Broadcasting application such as FM-radio,TVetc
SR.NO Parameters/CHS Wideband FM Narrow band
FM
1 Modulation index Greater than 1 Less than or slightly
greater than 1
2 Max.deviation 75 KHZ 5 KHZ
3 Range of mod.freq. 30 HZ to 15 KHZ 30 HZ to 3KHZ
4 Max.mod.Index 5 to 2500 Slightly greater than
1
5 B.W Large,15 times more than B.W
of NBFM
Small same as AM
6 Application Entertainment broadcasting FM mobile commn.
Police
wireless,Ambulance
..etc
7 Pre-emphasis &
De-emphasis
Needed Needed
Generation of FM
1.Direct Method 2.Indirect method
Direct method:
a.Varactor Diode modulator
b.Reactance modulator
i.Capacitive reactance FM-Mod.
ii.Inductive reactance modulator
1.Varactor Diode FM-Modulator
Reactance FM -Modulator
1.Capacitive Reactance modulator:
Ckt.should satisfy two condition 1. biasing c/n ib<<< Id &
2. Xc>>> R

Zeq. = V/( Ib + Id) but Id >>> Ib, so
Zeq. = V/Id -------------------------------------------------------1
Transconductance gm = Id/Vg
Id = Vg x gm -------------------------2
Since gate source is reverse biase,no c/n flows through
gate.so c/n Ib flows through resistor R
Vg = Ib x .R --------------------------------------------------3
Ib = V/(R-JXc)
Vg = V.R/(R-JXc)
Id = V.R/(R-JXc) x gm -------------------------------------4
put in eqn. 1
Zeq. = V/[V.R.gm/(R-JXc) ] = R-JXc /R.gm
Zeq.= 1/gm x [1- j xc /R] since Xc/R >>>1
Zeq.= - jXc/R.gm -----------------------------------------------------------5
This impedance is clearly capacitive reactance,which can be
writen as
Xc.eq.= Xc/gm.R
1/2f.Ceq. = 1/2f.C.gm.R
Ceq. = C.gm.R -------------------------------------------------------------6

Equvalent capacitance across the pt-AA depends on the
gm.transconductance of FET.

gm. Depends on gate voltage of FET.

We can vary the gate voltage with modulating signal.

equvalent capacitance vary with modulating signal.

if this ckt. Is connected to the tank ckt. of LC-tank.

so the freq. of that tank ckt. vary with mod . Signal &
FM generated
Capacitive Reactance modulator:
Inductive reactance FM-Modulator
Zeq. = V/( Ib + Id) but Id >>> Ib, so
Zeq. = V/Id -------------------------------------------------1

Transconductance gm = Id/Vg
Id = Vg x gm -------------------------2
Since gate source is reverse biase,no c/n flows through gate.so
c/n Ib flows through resistor R
Vg = Ib x .R --------------------------------------------------3
Ib = V/(R+JXL)
Vg = V.R/(R+JXL)
Id = V.R/(R+JXL) x gm -------------------------------------4
put in eqn. 1

Ckt.should satisfy two condition 1. biasing c/n ib<<< Id &
2. XL>>> R
Zeq. = V/[V.R.gm/(R+JXL) ] = R+JXL /R.gm
Zeq.= 1/gm x [1+ j xL /R] since XL/R >>>1
Zeq.= jXL/R.gm ------------------------------------------------------5
This impedance is clearly inductive reactance,which can
be writen as
XL.eq.= XL/gm.R
2f.L.eq. = 2f.L/gm.R
L.eq. = L/gm.R --------------------------------------------------------6

Equvalent Inductance across the pt-AA depends on the
gm.transconductance of FET.


gm. Depends on gate voltage of FET.

We can vary the gate voltage with modulating
signal.

equvalent inductance vary with modulating
signal.

if this ckt. Is connected to the tank ckt. of LC-
tank.

so the freq. of that tank ckt. vary with mod .
Signal & FM generated
Indirect method: FM.GENERATOR USING
ARMSTRONG METHOD
From.phaser diag.phase of phasemodulated signal depends on amplitude
of DSB-SC signal i.e.amplitude of modulating signal because
tan = EDSB/Ec



= EDSB/Ec
o/p of mixer is = nfc +nf (n-1)fc
= n f + fc
Carrier freq. is reduced to its original value & freq.deviation is
multiply by factor n which is suitable for transmission.
Then this signal is amplified by class-C power amplifier &
transmitted through the antenna.
Advantages of FM
Amplitude of the frequency modulated wave
remains unaffected.
Large decrease in noise, hence increase in S/N
ratio.
Noise may reduce by increasing deviation
Frequency allocation allows for a guard band
which reduces adjacent channel interference.
FM permits several independent transmitters
on the same frequency with negligible
interference.

Disadvantages:
1.B.W is large
2.FM TX-RX are complex.
3. FM wave cant cover large area.
4.Transmitting & receiving equipments for FM
are costly.


APPLICATION OF FM
1.Radio broadcasting
2.Sound broadcasting in TV
3.Sattellite commn.
4.Point to point commn.
5.Police wireless
6. FM is used in many radio stations (FM Radio
Stations) all over the world. Normally the
frequency range of FM channels are between
88.0 MHz - 108.0 MHz.

Effect of noise in FM & PM
When FM/PM travels from TX to RX.noise gets added in to the
signal.as shown above.

Due to this noise amplitude of the FM/PM wave gets
distorted.

In FM/PM w/v does not contain the information in their
amplitude variation at all.

Hence noise can not distort the information contained in
FM/PM.

So FM/PM are more noise resistance
EFFECT OF NOISE/NOISE TRIANGLE
Consider a single noise voltage having a freq.which falls in the
passband of the reciever.
This noise voltage will mix with the carrier to produce interference.
Noise vector is superimposed on carrier vector & it is rotating at a
relative angular velocity (n-c).due to this the amplitude & phase
of the carrier will change.
The amplitude & phase angle of resultant shown in fig.will keep
changing due to the relative rotation of the noise vector.

Max.deviation in the amplitude = Vn
Max.deviation in phase = =Sin-1(Vn/Vc)
Amplitude & phase both change due to noise
AM is affected by amplitude change in the carrier due to noise
FM is affected by phase change of carrier due to noise
Effect of modulating Frequency/FM-Noise


1.In AM-the change in noise freq.or change in mod.freq. does
not effect the signal to noise ratio, hence we get a rectangular
distribution for AM.
2.In FM this effect is different:
The noise phase modulates the carrier.
3 The effect of modulating freq.
The phase modulation of carrier can be expressed

= tan-1[VnA/Vc] ----------------------------------------------------1
VnA =Perpendicular noise component
4.For phase modulated signal the inst.phase angle (t) is
expressed as
(t) = c + t -------------------------------------------------------2

c = Carrier phase angle
t = Inst.change in phase angle with time

Differentiate eqn.2 we get
d (t) /dt = d c/dt + dt /dt ----------------------------------------3
Inst.angular freq. is i= d (t) /dt = d c/dt + dt /dt ---------4
c= d c/dt
pt= d t/dt =angular freq.deviation due to phase mod.
i = c + pt ----------------------------------------------------------5
pt= d t/dt
2fpt = d t/dt
fp(t)= 1/2 x d t/dt ----------------------------------------------6
Fp(t) = freq.deviation due to phase mod. produced by noise
FM-Reciever produces an o/p voltage is proportional to this
freq.deviation.this is unwanted o/p voltage it is treated as
noise .

The noise in the FM receiver is proportional to mod freq.

If mod freq. decreases the modulation index increases, noise
to signal ratio goes on decreasing.

Effect of noise in FM is higher at high mod.freq.

Effect of noise in FM is higher at lower mod.index.

At lower mod freq. M.I is higher so less noise effect in FM.
PRE-EMPHASIS
It has been proved that in FM ,the noise having greater effect on higher
modulating freq.
This effect can be reduced by increasing modulation index.(mf).for
higher modulating freq.
This can be done by increasing the deviation & it can be
increased by increasing the amplitude of modulating signal.&
higher mod.freq.
If we boost the amplitude of high freq.mod freq.signal.artificially
Then it could be possible to improve the noise immunity at high freq.
The artificial boosting of higher modulating freq.
is called PRE-EMPHASIS.

When this High freq. mod. Signal passing through the high passfilter
as fm incraeses reactance Xc = 1/2fm of capacitor decrease so

modulating voltage increases. so M.I increases at high mod.freq.
It is shown in Pre-emphasis characteristic
DE-EMPHASIS
The artificially boosted high freq.signal are brought to their original
amplitude using the De-emphasis. It is low pass filter. RC=75sec
The demodulated FM is applied to the DE-EMPHASIS ckt.with increase
in fm the reactance of Cap.C decreases & o/p of De-emphasis will also
reduce.
Comparison of AM- Vs FM
Modulating differences:
In AM, a radio wave known as
"carrier wave" is modulated in
amplitude by the signal that is to
be transmitted.
In FM, a radio wave known as the
"carrier" or "carrier wave" is
modulated in frequency by the
signal that is to be transmitted.
Importance:
It is used in both analog and
digital communication and
telemetry.
It is used in both analog and
digital communication and
telemetry.
Pros and cons:
AM has poorer sound quality
compared to FM, but is cheaper
and can be transmitted over long
distances. It has a smaller
bandwidth so it can have more
stations available in any
frequency range.
FM is less prone to interference
than AM. However, FM signals
are impacted by physical barriers.
FM has greater sound quality due
to higher bandwidth.
Stands for:
AM stands for Amplitude
Modulation
FM stands for Frequency
Modulation
Range:
AM radio ranges from 535
to 1705 kilohertz (OR) Up
to 1200 Bits per second
FM radio ranges in a
higher spectrum from 88
to 108 megahertz. (OR)
1200 to 2400 bits per
second
Bandwidth Requirements:
Twice the highest
modulating frequency.
Twice the sum of the
modulating signal
frequency and the
frequency deviation.
Zero crossing in modulated
signal:
Equidistant not equidistant
Complexity:
transmitter and receiver
are simple but in case of
SSBSC AM carrier
syncronization is needed
transmitter and receiver
are more complex .
Comparison of AM- Vs FM