Guildline Instruments Limited 2007

Electrical Measurement
Techniques
for Nanometrology
Speaker/Author: Richard Timmons, P.Eng.
President, Guildline Instruments
richard.timmons@guildline.com
Tel: 1.613.283.3000; Fax: 1.613.283.6082

Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Presentation Overview
DC Electrical Measurements
Nanoscale Range
Low And High Resistances
Low Currents
Low Voltages
Theoretical Frameworks
Techniques And Tips To Improve
Accuracy
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Electrical Standards - Resistance
All Electrical Standards Traceable
To National Metrology Institutes
Via17025 Accredited Calibrations
DC Resistance Standards
1 (10
-6
) to 10 P (10
-16
)
Uncertainties Range from 0.2 to 5000 ppm
Research Into 0.1 and Smaller Values
Temperature Stabilized Standards
Better Than Traditional Oil Based Standards
Best Uncertainties 0.2 ppm, Annual Drift < 1.5 ppm
Temperature Coefficient < 0.005 ppm
Intrinsic Standard Is Quantum Hall at 12906.4035
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Electrical Standards - Current
Current
Current Shunts 1 Amp to 3000 Amps
Best Uncertainties 1 ppm to 500 ppm
Stable, Linear Performance With Respect to Power
Primary Standard
Current Balance Between 2 Coils of Known Mass
and Dimensions With Uncertainty of 15 ppm
Practical Realization of Ampere
From 1A = 1V / 1 With Better Than .001 ppm
Uncertainties
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Electrical Standards - Voltage
Voltage
Typically 1 V to 10 V
Best Uncertainties < 1.0 ppm
Intrinsic Standard Is Josephine Junction Array
Typical Output In mV to 1V Range With Best
Uncertainties In the 0.01 to 0.001 ppm Range
Current Research on Stacked Josephine Junction
Arrays to Get Higher Voltages
Precision Voltage Dividers Used to Transfer To
Range of Nanovolts to Kilovolts

Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Resistance Measurements
Source Current / Measure Voltage
Source Voltage / Measure Current
Low Resistance Measurements
High Resistance Measurements
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Source Current / Measure Voltage
Best for Low Resistance Measurements (< 1k)
Voltage Sources Noisier Than Current Sources For Low
Impedance
The Johnson Voltage Noise At Room Temperature
(270K)

Simplifies to:


k = Boltzmanns Constant, T = Absolute Temperature of Source (K)
B = Noise Bandwidth (Hz), and R = Resistance of the Source ()
As DUT Resistance (R) Decreases Noise Voltage
Decreases
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Source Voltage / Measure Current
Best for High Resistance Measurements
> 10 k
Voltage Sources More Stable When Driving High
Impedance
The Johnson Current Noise At Room
Temperature (270K)


B = Noise Bandwidth (Hz), and R = Resistance of Source ()
As DUT Resistance (R) Increases Noise
Current Decreases
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Comparative Results Sourcing Current
Versus Sourcing Voltage
Summary of 50
Measurements
Made at Three
Resistance Values
Using a Guildline
DCC Bridge
Sourcing Both
Current and
Voltage
Test () Source
Current
Uncertainty
(ppm)
Source
Voltage
Uncertainty
(ppm)
1k-1k 0.005 0.206
10k-10k 0.011 0.003
100k-100k 0.217 0.003
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
LOW RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
1k 1k
Source Voltage Source Current
3V, 0.206 ppm Std. Dev. 3.16mA, 0.005 ppm Std. Dev.

At 1k and Lower, Sourcing Current Gives
Much Better Measurements

Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
MEDIUM RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
10k 10k
Source Voltage Source Current
10V, 0.003 ppm Std. Dev. 1mA, 0.011ppm Std. Dev.

The 10 k Resistance Level Is the Approximate
Transition Point At Which Both Voltage and Current
Methods Perform Equally Well With Respect to
Measurement Noise
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
HIGH RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
100k 100k
Source Voltage Source Current
32V, 0.003 ppm Std. Dev. 0.32mA, 0.217 ppm Std. Dev.

At 100 k and Higher Sourcing Voltage Gives
Much Better Measurements
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Very Low Resistance Measurements
100 Resistance
Standard (Guildline
9334A)
Below 1 m
Recommended to
Use Current Range
Extenders
Up to 3000A
Uncertainties of 10
-8

ppm or Better
Serial # 50A 75A 100A
68343 99.9871 99.9871 99.9888
69181 99.9803 99.9810 99.9826
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Very Low Resistance Measurements
(cont)
May Need Low Currents
Saturation Current For Nanoscale Materials Often
Very Low
Self Heating Effects Create Measurement Errors and
Excessive Heat Can Damage DUT
Exception Is Super-Conducting Materials
Current Comparator (CCC) Bridges Can Measure
Down to 10
-9
With Low Currents
Thermal Stability Very Important
For Both Resistance Standard and DUT
Stable Air Baths (0.001 C)
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Very High Resistance Measurements
DCC bridges measure up to 1 G
Provide Better Uncertainties At and Below
100 M
Best Uncertainties of 0.02 to 0.04 ppm For Multi-
Ratio Bridges
Teraohmmeters (i.e. electrometer based)
Better Above 1G
Measure From 1 M up to 10 P (10
16
) With
Direct Measurement Uncertainty Ranging
From 0.015% to 5% Across This Range
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Very High Resistance Measurements
(cont)
Teraohmmeter With
Multi-Ratio Direct
Transfer Provides
Best Uncertainties [1]
Transfers (25) To Known
1G, 10G and 100G
Standards Using
Known 100M
Standard (Ratios Up
to 1:1000)
Current Research to
10
17
Using 10
14

Standard.
Resistor
Nominal
Value
()
Charted
Uncertainty
(ppm)
Direct
Reading
(ppm)
Transfer
Uncertainty
(ppm)

100M 18 150 30.9
1G 41 200 33.7
10G 106 600 32.7
100G 94 800 46.6
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Low Current Measurements
Generate or Measure Accurate and
Traceable Low Value Currents
Use Commercial Voltage Standard and
Accurate High Value Resistance Standards
Traceable Reference Currents Down to 50 fA
(10
-15
A)
Can be Verified Using a Teraohmeter [2]
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Low Current Measurements
(cont)
Guildline 6520
Teraohmmeter
With Guildline
9336/9337
Resistance
Standards [2]
Uncertainties Can Be
Improved by the
Substitution
Method [1]
Resistor
9336/9337
Teraohmmeter
Test Voltage
Effective
Current
Uncertainty
100k 1 V 10 A 0.025 %
1M 1 V 1 A 0.025 %
10M 10 V 1 A 0.025 %
100M 10 V 100 nA 0.015 %
1G 10 V 10 nA 0.02 %
10G 10 V 1 nA 0.06 %
100G 10 V 100 pA 0.08 %
1T 10 V 10 pA 0.1 %
10T 10 V 1 pA 0.2 %
100T 10 V 100 fA 0.3 %
1P 10 V 10 fA 1 %
10P 10 V 1 fA 5 %
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Low Voltage Measurements
In Order to Prevent Damage
Unless Material Is Super-Conducting
Nanovolt Meters Can Measure in the
Picovolt (10
-12)
Range
Johnson Noise (i.e. Motion of Charged
Particles Due to Thermal Energy) Limits
Accuracy of Low Voltage Measurements


Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
AND TIPS
Temperature Effects
Digital Filtering
DC Reversal Techniques
Humidity Effects
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Connectors and Leads
Guarding
Grounding
Settling Times
Direct Measurement With No Amplification
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Temperature Effects
1.0 Resistance
Standard (Guildline
9334A)
t/c of 8.5 ppm/C
(8.5
-12
or 8.5 p)
Best Thermometry
Bridges < 0.025 ppm
Ruthenium Oxide Probe
(RTD) For < 1 K
needs 75 k
Stable Air Baths At
< 1 mK

Serial # 21C

23C

25C

68559 1.000048 1.000065 1.000083
68560 0.999997 1.000015 1.000032
68561 1.00033 1.00034 1.00035
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Digital Filtering
Order of Magnitude of Additional Accuracy
Large Number of Tests
Reduces the Bandwidth of the Noise
Ex: Remove Outlier Measurements > k3
( i.e. > 3 x standard deviation)
Dynamically Alter the Sampling Times
Increase If Measurement Stable
If Periodic, Synchronize To a Clock
Telecommunications Industry
Analyze Total Set of Test Results
Post Experiment Analysis With PC
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Digital Filtering
(cont)
Sophisticated
Techniques Include
Profiling Noise,
Excitation Effects,
Systematic Errors,
and Other Effects
With a Suitable
Mathematical Model
Use Weighted
Coefficients
Ex: Closure Error For a
Multi-Ratio Guildline
DCC bridge [3]
Correction
Method
Relative
Improvement
(ppm)
Uncorrected
(Baseline
Measurement)
0.000
Rounding 0.050
Linear
Interpolation
0.061
Logarithmic
Weighting
0.084
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
DC Reversal Techniques
Polarity Reversal
Eliminate Thermal EMFs
Reduces the Effect of White Noise
Increases the Signal-To-Noise Ratio
Can Be Optimized
Faster When Measured Parameter Is
Changing
Slower When Measured Parameter Is Stable
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Humidity Effects
Make Measurements In a Controlled, Low
Humidity Environment
Essential If DUT Absorbs Water
Use High Quality Insulators
Teflon, Polyethylene, Sapphire
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI)
EMI Noise In Most Laboratories
Florescent Lights, Cell Phones, Fixed Point Temperature
Furnaces, Electric Motors, AC Electrical Power Lines
Ambient EMI Noise Often Higher Than Nanoscale
Electrical Measurements
Instruments Have Built-in EMI Noise
Display Screens, Microprocessors / Microcontrollers, Power
Supplies
EMI Shielding For Both Measurement Circuitry and DUT
High Quality Air Baths Provide Both EMI Shielding and
Temperature Stability
Power Line Filters
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Connectors and Leads
4 Terminal Mode
Most Accurate Method for Measuring Small Resistances
Corrects For Lead Resistance
Allows Longer Test Leads
Current Supply Compliance Important
Very Low Resistances May Have Greater Voltage Drop
Across Leads and Connectors Then Across Shunt
Condition of Connectors, Cleanliness Important
Poor Measurements From Cracked Terminals, Dirty Contacts,
Moisture Absorbed By Standards and DUTs
Errors As High As 10 ppm
High Resistance Needs Very Good Insulation
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Guarding
Conductor Connected To Low Impedance Point
In Circuit That Is At Nearly Same Potential As
High Impedance Lead Being Guarded
Reduces Leakage Currents and Noise In Test /
Measurement Circuits
Very Important For High Resistance Measurements
Measurement Instruments Should Provide Guarded
Connection Terminal
Reduces Effect Of Shunt Capacitance
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Grounding
Single Point Ground For All Components In Test Setup
Including DUT
Avoids Ground Loop Currents Between Measurement Circuit
and DUT, or Measurement Circuit and Test Fixture
Noisy Power Lines
Largest Contributor Is Typically PCs
NOT Good Measurement Practice To Connect Different
Components Of Test Setup To Different Power Outlets
Power Line Grounds May Not Be At Same Electrical Potential,
Thus Creating Spurious Currents
NOT Good To Connect Instruments Common Ground
To Chassis Ground (i.e. Power Line Ground)
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Settling Times
Needed To Overcome Capacitance
Effects, Self-Heating Effects, Dielectric
Absorption
Present In Measurement Instruments,
Standards, Cabling, DUT
Longer Settling Times Very Important For
Resistances > 100 k
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Direct Measurement With No
Amplification
NOT Recommended To Use Operational
Amplifiers or Other Techniques To
Increase the Measured Signal
Will Proportionally Increase Noise
Operational Amplifiers Or Other Circuitry Will
Introduce Additional Noise
Need Instruments Capable Of Directly
Measuring Electrical Properties At Very
Low Values
Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
References
[1] Mark Evans and Nick Allen, Guildline Instruments
Limited, Evaluation of a Concept for High Ohms
Transfers at Ratios > 10:1, 2007 Conference
Proceedings of the NCSL International Annual
Workshop and Symposium.
[2] Mark Evans, Application of the Guildline Model
6520 Teraohmmeter for the Nuclear Power Industry,
White Paper, Guildline Instruments Limited.
[3] Mark Evans and Xiangxiao Qiu, P. Eng., Guildline
Instruments Limited, Application of Software Enhanced
DCC Bridge Measurement, 2005 Conference
Proceedings of the NCSL International Annual
Workshop and Symposium.

Guildline Instruments Limited 2007
Providing Precision
Measurement Solutions
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