CHAPTER - 3

LOAD AND STRESS

ANALYSIS
Equilibrium

Equilibrium is the condition of a system in which competing
influences are balanced.


The two major classification of equilibrium in a structural
analysis are,

1. Static Equilibrium

2. Mechanical Equilibrium

Classification
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM:

A system of particles is in static equilibrium when all
the particles of the system are at rest and the total force on
each particle is permanently zero

MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM:

The necessary and sufficient conditions for a particle
to be in mechanical equilibrium is that the net force acting
upon the particle is zero.
Free body diagrams
A diagram of a body (or a part of it) which shows all the
forces and couples applied on it, and which has all the forces
and couples labeled for use in the solution of the problem is
called a free-body diagram.
Purpose of free body diagram

The diagram establishes the directions of reference axis,
provides a place to record the dimensions of the subsystem
and the magnitudes and directions of the known forces and
helps in assuming the directions of unknown forces.

The diagram simplifies our thinking because it provides a
place to store one thought while proceeding to the next.

The diagram provides a means of communicating our
thoughts clearly and unambiguously to other people.
.
Purpose of free body diagram
Careful and complete construction of the diagram clarifies
fuzzy thinking by bringing out various points that are not
always apparent in the statement or in the geometry of the
total problem. Thus, the diagram aids in understanding all
facets of the problem.

The diagram helps in the planning of a logical attack on the
problem and in setting up the mathematical relations

The diagram helps in recording progress in the solution and
in illustrating the methods used.

The diagram allows others to follow our reasoning, showing
all forces
Steps for free body diagram
Follow these steps to draw a free-body diagram.
1. Select the body (or part of a body) that we want
to analyze, and draw it.

2. Identify all the forces and couples that are applied
onto the body and draw them on the body. Place each force
and couple at the point that it is applied.

3. Label all the forces and couples with unique
labels for use during the solution process.

4. Add any relevant dimensions onto our picture.


Forces and couples
1. Identify all the forces which come from the interaction of one body with
another. Remember that for each way in which a support restricts the
free motion of the body, a force or a moment must be applied to the body
to impose the restriction on the motion.

2. Apply the weight of the body to its center of gravity (if it is uniform, then
apply it to the centroid).

3. Remember that strings and cables can only pull on an object.

4. Remember that internal loads cancel out and should not be put on the
free-body diagram.

5. Remember that if we have selected the direction of forces or couples of
interaction on one body, then Newtons 3
rd
law states that you must apply
the forces or couples in the opposite direction on the other body.


Solving for unknowns
1. In 2-D problems the equilibrium equations
result in three independent scalar equations (two
components of force and one component of
moment). Therefore, we can only solve for three
scalar unknowns.

2. While taking moment , select a point such
that the line of action of at least one unknown
force passes through that point. This will eliminate
one unknown from our moment equation and will
result in simpler equations to work with.

3. We can sometimes take moments about two
or three different points in a problem. Select each
point so that you eliminate one or more unknowns
from the resulting moment equation.




Solving for unknowns
4. Remember that the additional equations we generate in the
above way are not independent of the original equations and
therefore we will still have only three independent equations in 2-D
problems per free-body diagram and you can only solve for three
unknowns per free-body diagram.

5. For a composite body, if we have drawn a free-body diagram
and written the equilibrium equations for each of its subsections,
we will gain no additional information if we draw the free-body
diagram of the entire composite body and write its equilibrium
equations.


6. In 3-D problems the equilibrium equations result in six
independent scalar equations (three components of force and
three components of moment). Therefore, we can solve for up to
six scalar unknowns per free-body diagram.

Example - beam
The figure shows below is a beam supported by reactions F
1
, F
2
and F
3

. If the beam is cut at some section located at x = x
1
and the left-hand
portion is removed as a free body, an internal shear force V and bending
moment M must act on the cut surface to ensure equilibrium.

stress
STRESS () :
Internal resistance force offered by a
body against deformation.

1. NORMAL STRESS (
n
) :
The internal resistance force acting in the
NORMAL direction.

2. SHEAR STRESS ():
The internal resistance force acting in the
TANGENTIAL direction.


ONE DIMENSIONAL STRESS
Engineering stress / Nominal stress
The simplest definition of stress, = F/A, where A is the
initial cross-sectional area prior to the application of the
load
True stress
True stress is an alternative definition in which the initial
area is replaced by the current area
e e true
) 1 (
Relation between Engineering & Nominal stress
TYPES OF STRESSES
TENSILE
BENDING
COMPRESSIVE
SHEAR
TORSION
normal Stress components
Cartesian co- ordinate system :
1. In the Cartesian co-ordinates system, we make use
of the axes, X, Y and Z
2. Let us consider the small element of the material
and show the various normal stresses acting the faces

Normal Stress components
Cylindrical co-ordinate system:
In the Cylindrical - co-ordinate system we make use of
co-ordinates r, q and Z.
SHEAR STRESS
TORSION
1 2
1 2
B A

z

z

dz
dx

z
d
z
d
y

z
d
z
d
y

x
dxdy

x
dxdy
dz dxdy dx dzdy
x z

D
C
x z

Taking moment about CD, We get
This implies that if there is a shear in one plane then there will be a shear in
the plane perpendicular to that
stress components
Shear Stresses :
With shear stress components, the single subscript notation is
not practical, because such stresses are in direction parallel to the
surfaces on which they act. We therefore have two directions to specify,
that of normal to the surface and the stress itself.. To do this, we attach
two subscripts to the symbol ' t' , for shear stresses.
For Cartesian co-ordinates,
stress components
For cylindrical co-ordinates
Stress components in 3-d
Elastic strain
When a material is placed in tension, there exists not only an axial
strain, but also negative strain (contraction) perpendicular to the axial
strain.

Assuming a linear, homogeneous, isotropic material, this lateral strain is
proportional to the axial strain.

If the axial direction is x, then the lateral strains are
y
=
z
= v
x
. The
constant of proportionality v is called Poissons ratio, which is about 0.3
for most structural metals.

If the axial stress is in the x direction,
For a stress element undergoing
x
,
y
, and
z
simultaneously, the
normal strains are given by,







Shear strain is the change in a right angle of a stress element when
subjected to pure shear stress, and Hookes law for shear is given by



where the constant G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of
rigidity
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
Mild steel
Thermoplastic
Copper