11 A light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a PN junction opto-semiconductor that emits a monochromatic (single color) light when operated in a forward biased direction. LEDs convert electrical energy into light energy. They are frequently used as "pilot" lights in electronic appliances to indicate whether the circuit is closed or not. 12 About LEDs (1/2) The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the semi-conductor chip located in the center of the bulb as shown at the right. The chip has two regions separated by a junction. The p region is dominated by positive electric charges, and the n region is dominated by negative electric charges. The junction acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the p and the n regions. Only when sufficient voltage is applied to the semi-conductor chip, can the current flow, and the electrons cross the junction into the p region. 13 How Does A LED Work? (1/2) When sufficient voltage is applied to the chip across the leads of the LED, electrons can move easily in only one direction across the junction between the p and n regions.
In the p region there are many more positive than negative charges.
When a voltage is applied and the current starts to flow, electrons in the n region have sufficient energy to move across the junction into the p region. 14 How Does A LED Work? (2/2) Each time an electron recombines with a positive charge, electric potential energy is converted into electromagnetic energy.
For each recombination of a negative and a positive charge, a quantum of electromagnetic energy is emitted in the form of a photon of light with a frequency characteristic of the semi-conductor material (usually a combination of the chemical elements gallium, arsenic and phosphorus)..
15 Testing LEDs Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply! It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.
Remember to connect the LED the correct way round! 16 Applications Sensor Applications Mobile Applications Sign Applications Automative Uses LED Signals Illuminations Indicators 17 Sensor Applications Medical Instrumentation Bar Code Readers Color & Money Sensors Encoders Optical Switches Fiber Optic Communication
18 Mobile Applications Mobile Phone PDA's Digital Cameras Lap Tops General Backlighting
19 Sign Applications Full Color Video Monochrome Message Boards Traffic/VMS Transportation - Passenger Information
LEDs offer enormous benefits over traditional incandescent lamps including:
Energy savings (up to 85% less power than incandescent) Reduction in maintenance costs Increased visibility in daylight and adverse weather conditions
22 Illumination (1/2) Architectural Lighting Signage (Channel Letters) Machine Vision Retail Displays Emergency Lighting (Exit Signs) Neon Replacement Bulb Replacements Flashlights Outdoor Accent Lighting - Pathway, Marker Lights 23 Illumination (2/2) LEDs not only consume far less electricity than traditional forms of illumination, resulting in reduced energy costs, but require less maintenance and repair. Studies have shown that the use of LEDs in illumination applications can offer: Greater visual appeal Reduced energy costs Increased attention capture Savings in maintenance and lighting replacements As white LED technology continues to improve, the use of LEDs for general illumination applications will become more prevalent in the industry.
24 Indication Household appliances VCR/ DVD/ Stereo and other audio and video devices Toys/Games Instrumentation Security Equipment Switches 25 Driving LEDs Analog LED Drive Circuits Digital LED Drive Circuits
26 Colours of LEDs (1/3) LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours. The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent. LEDs are made from gallium-based crystals that contain one or more additional materials such as phosphorous to produce a distinct color. Different LED chip technologies emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum and produce different intensity levels. 27 Colours of LEDs (2/3) Tri-colour LEDs
The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in one package with three leads. They are called tri- colour because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.
28 Colours of LEDs (3/3) Bi-colour LEDs
A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri- colour LEDs described above. 29 LED Performance (1/8) Color White light Intensity Eye safety information Visibility Operating Life Voltage/Design Current LED performance is based on a few primary characteristics: 30 LED Performance (2/8) Colour
Peak wavelength is a function of the LED chip material. Although process variations are 10 NM, the 565 to 600 NM wavelength spectral region is where the sensitivity level of the human eye is highest. Therefore, it is easier to perceive color variations in yellow and amber LEDs than other colors.
31 LED Performance (3/8) White Light
When light from all parts of the visible spectrum overlap one another, the additive mixture of colors appears white. However, the eye does not require a mixture of all the colors of the spectrum to perceive white light. Primary colors from the upper, middle, and lower parts of the spectrum (red, green, and blue), when combined, appear white.
32 LED Performance (4/8) Intensity
LED light output varies with the type of chip, encapsulation, efficiency of individual wafer lots and other variables. Several LED manufacturers use terms such as "super-bright," and "ultra-bright to describe LED intensity. Such terminology is entirely subjective, as there is no industry standard for LED brightness.
33 LED Performance (5/8)
Eye Safety
The need to place eye safety labeling on LED products is dependent upon the product design and the application. Only a few LEDs produce sufficient intensity to require eye safety labeling. However, for eye safety, do not stare into the light beam of any LED at close range 34 LED Performance (6/8) Visibility Luminous intensity (Iv) does not represent the total light output from an LED. Both the luminous intensity and the spatial radiation pattern (viewing angle) must be taken into account. If two LEDs have the same luminous intensity value, the lamp with the larger viewing angle will have the higher total light output. 35 LED Performance (7/8) Operating Life Because LEDs are solid-state devices they are not subject to catastrophic failure when operated within design parameters. DDP LEDs are designed to operate upwards of 100,000 hours at 25C ambient temperature. Operating life is characterized by the degradation of LED intensity over time. When the LED degrades to half of its original intensity after 100,000 hours it is at the end of its useful life although the LED will continue to operate as output diminishes. Unlike standard incandescent bulbs, DDP LEDs resist shock and vibration and can be cycled on and off without excessive degradation. 36 LED Performance (8/8) Voltage/Design Current
LEDs are current-driven devices, not voltage driven. Although drive current and light output are directly related, exceeding the maximum current rating will produce excessive heat within the LED chip due to excessive power dissipation. The result will be reduced light output and reduced operating life. LEDs that are designed to operate at a specific voltage contain a built-in current-limiting resistor. Additional circuitry may include a protection diode for AC operation or full-bridge rectifier for bipolar operation. The operating current for a particular voltage is designed to maintain LED reliability over its operating life. 37
Bargraph 7-segment Starburst Dot matrix Some Types of LEDs 38 Principle of LCD Display 39 1. Whats Liquid Crystals (LC) intermediary substance between a liquid and solid state of matter. e.g. soapy water light passes through liquid crystal changes when it is stimulated by an electrical charge. 40 Examples of LCs 41 2. Introduction to Liquid Crystal Displays Consists of an array of tiny segments (called pixels) that can be manipulated to present information. Using polarization of lights to display objects. Use only ambient light to illuminate the display. Common wrist watch and pocket calculator to an advanced VGA computer screen 42 Different types of LCDs Passive Matrix LCDs (AMLCD) and Active Matrix LCDs (AMLCD) Passive Twisted Nematic Displays (TNLCD) Super Twisted nematic LCD (STNLCD) Thin Film Transistor LCD (TFT LCD) Reflective LCD Rear Projection LCD 43 3. Operating Principle The parallel arrangement of liquid crystal molecules along grooves When coming into contact with grooved surface in a fixed direction, liquid crystal molecules line up parallel along the grooves. 44 3. Operating Principle Molecules movement Offline (no voltage is applied) Along the upper plate : Point in direction 'a' Along the lower plate : Point in direction 'b Forcing the liquid crystals into a twisted structural arrangement. (Resultant force) 45 3. Operating Principle Light movement Offline (no voltage is applied) Light travels through the spacing of the molecular arrangement. The light also "twists" as it passes through the twisted liquid crystals. Light bends 90 degrees as it follows the twist of the molecules. Polarized light pass through the analyzer (lower polarizer). 46 3. Operating Principle Molecules movement Online (voltage is applied) Liquid crystal molecules straighten out of their helix pattern Molecules rearrange themselves vertically (Along with the electric field) No twisting thoughout the movement Forcing the liquid crystals into a straight structural arrangement. (Electric force) 47 3. Operating Principle Light movement Online (voltage is applied) Twisted light passes straight through. Light passes straight through along the arrangement of molecules. Polarized light cannot pass through the lower analyzer (lower polarizer). Screen darkens. 48 3. Operating Principle Offline Online Sequences of offline and online mode Offline 1. Surrounding light is polarized on the upper plate. 2. Light moves along with liquid crystals and twisted at right angle. 3. Molecules and lights are parallel to the lower analyzer. 4. Light passes through the plate. 5. Screen appear transparent. 49 3. Operating Principle Sequences of offline and online mode Online 1. Surrounding light is polarized on the upper plate. 2. Light moves along with liquid crystals which moves straight along the electric field. 3. Molecules and lights are perpendicular to the lower analyzer. 4. Light cannot pass through the plate. 5. Screen appear dark. Offline Online 50 3. Operating Principle Polarization of light When unpolarized light passes through a polarizing filter, only one plane of polarization is transmitted. Two polarizing filters used together transmit light differently depending on their relative orientation. Online Offline 51 3. Operating Principle Construction of Liquid Crystal Display Two bounding plates (usually glass slides), each with a transparent conductive coating (such as indium tin oxide) that acts as an electrode; A polymer alignment layer : undergoes a rubbing process as grooves. Spacers to control the cell gap precisely; Two crossed polarizers (the polarizer and the analyzer); Polarizers are usually perpendicular to each other. 52 3. Operating Principle Properties of LCD Display Small footprint (approx 1/6 of CRT) Light weight (typ. 1/5 of CRT) power consumption (typ. 1/4 of CRT) Completely flat screen - no geometrical errors Crisp pictures - digital and uniform colors No electromagnetic emission Fully digital signal processing possible Large screens (>20 inch) on desktops High price (presently 3x CRT) Poor viewing angle (typ. 50 degrees) Low contrast and luminance (typ. 1:100) Low luminance (typ. 200 cd/m2)
Maximum luminosity : 50% of CRT as 50% of light is blocked by the upper polarizer. 53 3. Operating Principle Advantage of LCD over CRT Smaller sizeAMLCDs occupy approximately 60 percent less space than CRT displaysan important feature when office space is limited. Lower power consumptionAMLCDs typically consume about half the power and emit much less heat than CRT displays. Lighter weightAMLCDs weigh approximately 70 percent less than CRT displays of comparable size. No electromagnetic fieldsAMLCDs do not emit electromagnetic fields and are not susceptible to them. Thus, they are suitable for use in areas where CRTs cannot be used. Longer lifeAMLCDs have a longer useful life than CRTs; however, they may require replacement of the backlight. Maximum luminosity : 50% as 50% of light is blocked by the upper polarizer. 54 4. Display Addressing Addressing is the process by which pixels are turned on and off in order to create an image. There are two main types of addressing, direct and multiplexing. Direct addressing is convenient for displays where there are only a few elements that have to be activated. With direct addressing, each pixel in the display has its own drive circuit. A microprocessor must individually apply a voltage to each element. A common application of direct addressing is the traditional seven segment liquid crystal display, found in wristwatches and similar devices. 55 4. Display Addressing In multiplex addressing, a larger number of pixels are involved. When the elements are in a regular order, they can be addressed by their row and column instead of each element being driven separately. This reduces the complexity of the circuitry because each pixel no longer needs its own driver circuit. If you have a 10x10 matrix of pixels, with direct addressing, you need 100 individual drivers. However, if you use multiplex addressing, you only need 20 drivers, one for each row and one for each column. This is a tremendous advantage, especially as displays become larger and larger. 56 4. Display Addressing Optical Response twisted nematic displays can switch between light and dark states, or somewhere in between (grayscale). Electro-distortional curve is shown as follows :
the electro-distortional response determines the transmission of light through the cell. Different light intensity of an image projected on the screen is determined by different voltage supply. Thus the level of blocking of light may vary. 57 5. Applications A) Thin Film Transistor (TFT) Constructed on a glass surface using a photolithographic process. The source and gate are the control electrodes. The drain electrode connects to the liquid crystal pixel. The thin layer of amorphous silicon is the semiconducting material that allows the TFT to function. The capacitor is attached to the pixel electrode, but is not an integral part of the TFT. 58 5. Applications B) Alpha-numeric display Digital letters can be displayed by blocking the lights in different plates we place. For applications such as digital watches and calculators, a mirror is used under the bottom polarizer. With no voltage applied, ambient light passes through the cell, reflects off the mirror, reverses its path, and re-emerges from the top of the cell, giving it a silvery appearance. When the electric field is on, the aligned LC molecules do not affect the polarization of the light. The analyzer prevents the incident light from reaching the mirror and no light is reflected, causing the cell to be dark. When the electrodes are shaped in the form of segments of numbers and letters they can be turned on and off to form an alpha-numeric display. 59 5. Applications C) Back lighting systems Alpha-numeric displays are not very bright because the light must pass through multiple polarizers which severely cut down on the intensity of the light, in addition to the various layers of the display which are only semi-transparent. Therefore a more intense source is employed in the form of a back lighting system. For brighter displays Light bulbs mounted behind At the edges of the display replace the reflected ambient light. Disadvantage : very power intensive. Back lighting systems are used in more complex displays such as laptop computer screens, monitors, LCD projectors, pda, digital devices such as digital camera and DV.