Food chain

• The transfer of food energy from the producers,

through a series of organisms with repeated eaten
and being eaten is known as food chain
• The transfer of food energy from plant sources
through a series of organisms forms a 'food chain'
Types of food chain
1)Grazing food chain
2)Detritus food chain
3)Parasitic food chain
 Grazing food chain
• This type of food chains starts from the living green
plants, goes to grazing herbivores and on to
carnivores
• Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly
dependent on the influx of solar radiation
• The autotrophic energy capture and the movement of
the captured energy is the important factor
Example:
 Detritus food chain
• This type of food chain goes from dead organic
matter into micro-organisms and then to organisms
feeding on detritus and their predators
• Depends chiefly on the influx of organic matter
produced in another system
• Such type of food chain operates in the decomposing
accumulated litter
Example:
 Differences between the food chains
Characters Grazing food chain Detritus food chain

Primary energy Solar radiations Detritus

source

First trophic level All herbivores Detritivores(a mixed

group of herbivores,
omnivores and
primary carnivores)
Size Long-sixed chains Small-sized chains
 Parasitic food chain
• In this type of food chain, the
transfer of food energy occur from
higher organism to lower organism
Producer Herbivore
Parasite Hyperparasite
 Food webs
• Food web is a network of food chains where different
types of organisms are connected at different trophic
levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and
being eaten at each trophic level
•     In nature, food chain relationships are not
isolated. They are very complex, as one
organism may form the food source of many
organisms. Thus, instead of a simple linear
food chain, there is a web like structure
formed by these interlinked food chains. Such
interconnected matrix of food chains is called
'food web'.
Food web in a grassland
Food web in a forest
Food web in terrestrial and aquatic
systems
 Significance of food chains and food
webs
1) Energy flow and nutrient cycling take place
through them
2) The food chain helps in maintaining and
regulating the population size of different
animals and thus, help maintain the
ecological balance
3) Food chains show an unique property of
biological magnification of some chemicals
 Ecological pyramids
• Ecological pyramids are also called 'Eltonian
pyramids' after C. Elton
• Graphic representation of trophic structure and
function of ecosystem, starting with producers at the
base and successive trophic level forming the apex is
known as an ecological pyramid
• On the basis of the parameters used, ecological
pyramids are of three types
1) Pyramid of numbers
2) Pyramid of biomass
3) Pyramid of energy
 Pyramid of numbers
• It represents the number of individual organisms at each
trophic level

• Pyramid of numbers is the graphic representation of number

of individuals per unit area of various trophic levels
stepwise with producers forming the base and top
carnivores the tip

• Depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain an

upright, inverted or a spindle shaped pyramid can be formed
 Pyramid of numbers-Upright pyramid

In aquatic ecosystems and herbaceous communities,

autotrophs are present in large numbers per unit area.
They support a lesser number of herbivores, which in
turn support fewer carnivores
 Pyramid of numbers-Inverted
In a parasitic food chain, for e.g., an oak tree, the large
tree provides food to several herbivorous birds. The
birds support still larger population of ectoparasites
leading to the formation of an inverted pyramid
 Pyramid of numbers-Spindle shape
When a large tree support larger number of herbivorous
birds which in turn are eaten by carnivorous birds like
falcon and eagle, which are smaller in number, it forms
a spindle shaped pyramid
 Pyramid of Biomass
• The total amount of living or organic matter in an
ecosystem at any time is called 'Biomass‘
• Pyramid of biomass is the graphic representation of
biomass present per unit area of different trophic
levels, with producers at the base and top carnivores
at the tip
 Pyramid of Energy
• Pyramid of energy is a graphic representation of the
amount of energy trapped per unit time and area in
different trophic level of a food chain with producers
forming the base and the top carnivores at the tip
• Pyramid of energy is always upright. It is so because at
each transfer about 80 - 90% of the energy available at
lower trophic level is used up to overcome its entropy
and to perform metabolic activities.
• Only 10% of the energy is available to next trophic level
(as per Lindemann's ten percent rule)
Pyramid of Energy
 Nutrients
• Earth is the source of matter for all living organisms, as they
require several (about 40) elements for their growth and life
processes
• Some elements and their compounds have an important role in
the living protoplasm and are required in large amounts. These
nutrients are called 'macro nutrients' or 'essential
nutrients‘Eg.C, N,O, P, Ca, S, K
• Some elements are required in minute quantities and have a
role in the activities of the living protoplasm. These nutrients
are called 'micronutrients' or 'trace elements‘Eg.Mn, Cu, V, Co
• Some elements (such as sodium) can act as both macro and
micronutrients depending upon the species and its
requirements
Biogeochemical cycles/Nutrient cycles
• The elements are provided by the earth and are used by the
organisms for their body building and metabolism, they are called
'Biogenetic nutrients' or 'Biogeochemicals‘

• "The movement or circulation of biogenetic nutrients through the

living and non-living components of the biosphere or of any
ecosystem is called biogeochemical cycling

• "Biogeochemical cycles are the cyclic pathways through which

chemical elements move from environment to organism and back to
the environment

• Since such movements of elements and inorganic compounds is

essential for maintenance of life they are also called nutrient cycles
 Types of biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical cycles are basically of two types
a) Gaseous cycles like carbon (as carbon dioxide), oxygen,
nitrogen, etc.
b) Sedimentry cycles like sulphur, phosphorus etc
• In gaseous cycles, the elements have a main reservoir in the
gaseous phase, and the reservoir pool is the atmosphere or water.
The biogenetic materials involved in circulation pass through a
gaseous phase before completing the cycle
• In sedimentary cycles, the elements main reservoir pool is
lithosphere and the biogenetic materials involved in circulation
are non-gaseous. The sedimentary cycles are usually very slow as
the elements may get locked up in rocks and go out of circulation
for long periods.
 Carbon cycle
• Carbon is found as graphite and diamond in nature. It
also occurs as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
• Because of the position of its electrons, an atom of
carbon can form covalent bonds with hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and other carbon
atoms. Because of this versatility, the carbon atom is
the principal building block of many kinds of
molecules, which make up the living organisms
• Carbon cycle is a perfect cycle in the sense that
carbon is returned to atmosphere as soon as it is
removed
 Sources of carbon
1) Major source of carbon for the living world is carbon
dioxide. Atmosphere contains about 700 x 109 metric
tonnes of carbon dioxide while ocean water contains
about 35,000 x 109 metric tonnes of carbon dioxide
2) Carbonates of earth's crust derived from rocks, which
by chemical reactions give rise to carbon dioxide
3) Fossil fuels like peat, coal and petroleum products
found in the lithosphere contains about 2.81 x 1021 kg of
carbon
4) Oceans, where carbon remains stored as carbonates in
the form of limestone and marble rocks
 Carbon di oxide utilization
The major process that brings carbon form the
atmosphere into the living world is photosynthesis,
where producers take in carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and convert it into organic compounds.
Oxygen is released as a by product

Carbon fixed by the producers enters the food

chain and is passed to herbivores, carnivores
and decomposers.
 Carbon di oxide cycling
A)Carbon dioxide is released back to the
environment by respiration of producers
and consumers
B)Released by the decomposition of organic
wastes and dead bodies by the action of
bacteria and fungi on decay.  
c) Burning of wood and fossil fuels add
considerable amount of carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere  
d) Volcanic eruptions and weathering of
carbonate rocks by the action of acids
Carbon cycle
 Nitrogen cycle
• Nitrogen is an important structural component of
many necessary compounds, particularly proteins.
Atmosphere is the reservoir of free gaseous nitrogen
and nitrogen compounds are found in bodies of
organisms and in the soil
• Nitrogen cycling involves several stages:
1)Nitrogen Fixation
2)Ammonification
3)Nitrification
4)Denitrification
 Nitrogen fixation
• Conversion of nitrogen into nitrates is
called nitrogen fixation
1)Atmospheric nitrogen fixation  
2) Biological nitrogen fixation  
3) Industrial nitrogen fixation
 Atmospheric nitrogen fixation
• Thunderstorms and lightning are the common photochemical
and electrochemical reactions in nature, which convert
atmospheric gaseous nitrogen to oxides of nitrogen
• They get dissolved in water forming nitrous acid and nitric
acid, which inturn combine with other salts to produce
'nitrates‘
• The reactions are represented as:
N2+O2 2NO
2NO+O2 2NO2
2NO2+H2O HNO2+HNO3
3NO2+H2O 2HNO3+NO
 Biological nitrogen fixation
• The process is the transformation of gaseous nitrogen into nitrates by living
organisms. Biological nitrogen fixation occurs by:  
a) Symbiotic nitrogen fixation, which is brought about by certain bacteria such
as
i)Rhizobium species in the root nodules of legumes (pea family)  
ii) Nostoc and Anabaena (cyanobacetria) in the coralloid roots of cycas  
iii) Actinomycetes in the root nodules of Alnus, Casuarina, etc
b) Free living (asymbiotic) nitrogen fixing organisms, are prThese include –
i) Obligatory aerobes such as Azotobacter.
  ii) facultative aerobes such as Escherichia, Bascillus, etc.
iii) anaerobic bacteria like Clostridium.  
iv) photosynthetic bacteria like Rhodospirillum (purple bacteria) etc.
 Industrial nitrogen fixation
• Ammonia is produced in industry by
combining nitrogen and hydrogen
under high pressure of 200
atmospheres and extreme high
temperature of 400oC (Haber's
process)

N2+3H2 2NH3
 Ammonification
• Involves the decomposition of protein of dead plants and
animals, and nitrogenous wastes like urea, uric acid, etc to
ammonia, in the presence of ammonifying bacteria or
putrifying bacteria.
• Common ammonifying bacteria are Bascillus ramosus,
Bascillus vulgaris and Bascillus mycoides.
• Part of the plant proteins are broken down into nitrogenous
animal proteins. In animal body, the plant proteins are
consumed and are broken down into nitrogenous wastes like
urea, uric acid and ammonia.
• Nitrogenous wastes are excreted out which are acted upon by
decomposing microorganisms such as Actinomycetes and
fungi.
Proteins Aminoacid Ammonia
 Nitrification
• Involves the oxidation of ammonia to nitrates through
nitrites in the presence of nitrifying bacteria, which are
also chemosynthetic autotrophs
• First, ammonia is converted into nitrites by
Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria
• The nitrites are then converted into nitrates by
Nitrobacter and Nitrocystis, which are now available for
plant absorption
 Denitirfication
• It is a biological process where in the ammonium
compounds, nitrates and nitrites are reduced to
molecular
• The denitrification occurs in the presence of
denitrifying bacteria such as
Bascillus subtilis
Micrococcus denitrificans
Pseudomonas stutzeri
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, etc.
Nitrogen cycle
 Oxygen cycle
• Oxygen is another essential element for living organisms
Sources:
• It is present in large quantities (20.95% v/v) in the atmosphere
and is also seen in bound state in water and as oxides and
carbonates in rocks
• Dissolved oxygen in water is the source of oxygen for aquatic
organisms
• Oxygen in the Ozone layer (O3) of the outer stratosphere of the
atmosphere protects life from ionizing short wave radiations
(ultraviolet radiations)
• Oxygen also occurs in combined state as carbon dioxide and
water
 Source of Oxygen
• An additional source of atmospheric oxygen comes
from photolysis, whereby high energy ultraviolet
radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrite
into component atoms. The free H and N atoms
escape into space leaving O2 in the atmosphere:
2H2O + energy → 4H + O2
2N2O + energy → 4N + O2
 Oxygen cycling
A) Oxygen in the atmosphere is in a state of 'dynamic
equilibrium'. Plants and animals take in oxygen for respiration

B) During respiration, oxidation of carbohydrates and other fuels

form carbon dioxide and water. Thus, during respiration
oxygen enters the living world in free state and is released in
combined state
C) Oxygen is also used in combustion of wood, oxides of nitrogen
etc.
D) Oxygen (in combined state) is utilised by plants as carbon
dioxide and water during photosynthesis
E) Microbial oxidation produce varieties of oxides utilising
atmospheric oxygen.
 Oxygen cycling
• The main way oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is
via respiration and decay, mechanisms in which
animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release
carbon dioxide
• Because lithospheric minerals are oxidised in oxygen,
chemical weathering of exposed rocks also consumes
oxygen. An example of surface weathering chemistry
is formation of iron-oxides (rust):
4FeO + O2 → 2Fe2O3
 Oxygen cycling
• Oxygen is also cycled between the biosphere and
lithosphere. Marine organisms in the biosphere create
calcium carbonate shell material (CaCO3) that is rich in
oxygen.
• When the organism dies its shell is deposited on the
shallow sea floor and buried over time to create the
limestone rock of the lithosphere.
• Weathering processes initiated by organisms can also free
oxygen from the lithosphere. Plants and animals extract
nutrient minerals from rocks and release oxygen in the
process
Oxygen cycle
 Phosphorus cycle
• Phosphorus is an essential nutrient to biological systems. Its
requirement is mainly seen in nucleic acids, cell membrane,
bones and teeth
Importance of phosphate
a) It is the main constituent of energy rich compounds like ADP
(Adenosine diphosphate), ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), GTP
(Guanine tri phosphate) etc.
b) Its a major constituent of cell membrane, nucleic acid, cellular
energy transfer systems
c) Essential for metabolic reactions releasing energy
d) Required for encoding of the information in genes (as it is the
component of nucleotides and nucleic acids)
Phosphorus has no gaseous phase and hence forms a part of
sedimentary cycle
 Sources of phosphate
1) Greatest reservoirs of phosphate are the insoluble
ferric and calcium phosphates in rocks (rock
phosphate) in combination with calcium, iron and
aluminium. Slow process of weathering releases
phosphates to the soil
2) Phosphates are also added to the soil by man in the
form of artificial fertilizers
3) Some quantity of phosphorus is deposited in deep
sediments in oceans and is brought to the cycle by
upwelling (but not extensive)
 Phosphorus cycling
i)Considerable amount of phosphorus from the soil rock is
washed into the sea by rains and floods (an estimated
amount of 2 million tonnes of phosphotic rock is lost to
sea) where sea weeds take up phosphorus and is then
passed onto fishes and sea birds
ii) Terrestrial plants absorb phosphorus as phosphate ions
(orthophosphate ions) from the soil
iii) Animals obtain phosphates by consuming plants as food
(as organic phosphate through the food chain)
 Phosphorus cycling
iv)Some amount of phosphorus is returned to earth in
the form of birds excreta - Guano deposits (excreta of
marine birds) and dead fish (around 60,000 tonnes
which is less than 0.5% of phosphorus discharged
from rivers)
v) Death and decay of organisms and decomposition of
organic matter by microorganisms releases the
phosphates into the soil, making them available to
plants once again
vi)Zooplanktons excrete phosphorus into water
(negligible amount)
 Imperfect cycle
• Once phosphorus becomes a part of the soil water as
phosphate or in dissolved state in any aquatic system, it
re-enters the cycle through producers
• When phosphates form compounds with metals like
aluminium, iron or calcium, phosphorus become
unavailable to plants (becomes sediment and are
deposited in deep ocean floor), and is lost to the
phosphorus cycle until chemically changed
• Phosphorus incorporated in bones and teeth also remain
outside the natural cycle for a long time as the bones and
teeth are resistant to decay
• Therefore, phosphorus cycle is an imperfect cycle
Phosphorus cycle
 Ecological Energetics
Primary productivity
The rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic activity of producers
It is further distinguished as:
• Gross primary productivity
It is the total rate of photosynthesis including the organic matter
used up in the respiration
• Net primary productivity
It is the rate of storage of organic matter in plant tissues in excess
of respiratory utilisation
NPP=GPP-Energy used in respiration
 Energy flow in an ecosystem
Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the
food chain and it is this energy which keeps the
ecosystem going
Energy flow models:
The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an
ecosystem can be explained with the help of various
energy flow models
1)Single channel energy flow model
2)2-channel of Y-shaped energy flow model
3)Multichannel flow of energy
Single-channel energy model
• Out of the total incoming solar radiation, 118,761
g cal/cm2/yr remain unutilized and thus the gross
production of autotrophs is 111 g cal/cm2/yr with an
efficiency of energy capture at 0.1%
•About 21% of this energy is consumed in metabolic
reactions of autotrophs for their growth , development,
maintenance and reproduction
•Further 15 g cal/cm2/yr are consumed by herbivores.
Decomposition accounts for 3.4%
•The remainder 70g cal/cm2/yr is not utilised and
becomes part of accumulating sediments
 Single-channel energy model
• The various pathways of loss are equivalent to and
account for total energy capture
• At the herbivore level, out of 15 gcal/cm2/yr, 4.5
gcal/cm2/yr is used in metabolic reactions
• 3 gcal/cm2/yr is passed on to carnivores which is more
efficient utilisation of resources than the autotroph
level
• At the carnivore level the respiratory loss is 1.8
gcal/cm2/yr which is high compared to the autotroph
and herbivore level
 Features of the energy flow model
• Firstly, there is one way energy flow ie, unidirectional
flow of energy. The energy captured by autotrophs
does not revert back to solar input and which pass to
herbivores does not pass back to autotrophs

• Secondly, there is a progressive decrease in energy

level at each trophic level. This is accounted largely by
the energy dissipated as heat in metabolic activities
(respiration)coupled with unutilized energy
 Energy model follows TD laws
• The 1st law of TD states that energy can neither be
created not destroyed but can be transformed from
one form to another. The solar energy captured by the
autotrophs get converted into biochemical energy of
plants and later into that of consumers
• The 2nd law of TD states that energy transfer is
accompanied by dispersion of energy into unavailable
heat. As energy flows through the food chain, there
occurs dissipation of energy(respiration) at every
trophic level
 Y-shaped energy flow model
• This model states that the energy transfer has three main paths
i)Heat loss as repiration
ii)Transfer to next trophic level
iii)Through death to decomposers
According to this, there are two basic food chains in any system
1)The grazing food chain beginning with green plant base going to
herbivores and then to carnivores
2)The detritus food chain beginning with dead organic matter
acted by microbes, then passing to detritivores and their
consumers
 Y-shaped energy flow model

This universal model of energy can be used in two ways:

i)It can represent a species population in which case the appropriate energy inputs
and links with other species would be shown as a conventional species-oriented
food-web diagram
ii)The model can represent a discrete energy level in which case the biomass and
energy channels represent all or parts of many population supported by the same
energy source
 Multichannel flow of energy
• These models depict the basic pattern of energy flow in
ecosystem
• In nature, the organisms are interrelated in a way that
several food chains become interlocked and this results
into ac omplex web
• Thus in nature there operate multi-channel energy
flows, but in these the channels belong to either grazing
or detritus food chain
• Interlocking pattern of several chains in food web of an
ecosystem leads to multi-channel flow of energy