Compendium Review

Major Topic One: Nervous Function

Table of Contents
Part 1
• The Organization of the Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
• The Limbic System & Mental Functions
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System Diseases
• Drug and Alcohol Effects
Part 2
• Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
• Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• Taste and Smell
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium
• The Organization of the Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
• The Limbic System & Mental Functions
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System Diseases
• Drug and Alcohol Effects

Picture from http://kvhs.nbed.nb.ca/gallant/biology/neuron_structure.jpg

 The Organization of the Nervous System
There are two main units to the nervous system: the central nervous system (CNS)
which contains the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
which includes the nerves. The nervous system has 3 important functions: to receive
sensory input, perform integration, and generate motor output.

Nervous Tissue
• Neurons - cells responsible for transmission of nerve
impulses. Consist of a body, dendrites, and an axon.
The 3 types of neurons are sensory neurons
(transports impulses to CNS), interneurons (receive
messages and convey to motor neurons), and motor
neurons (transports impulses from CNS to effectors).

Sensory receptors are

responsible for
identifying change
internally while effectors
are responsible for
executing responses.
• Neuroglia – provide for
neurons by supplying
nourishment

Pictures from Human Biology Page 248

 Cell Body:
The Organization of the Nervous
Nucleus
System and
organelles
Long axons are covered by myelin sheath’s
which is a protective insulating phospholipid Myelin
Sheath
layer composed of Myelin (80% lipid fat / 20%
protein). The gaps along axons where there is
no myelin wrapped around it is called nodes of
Ranvier, named after Louis-Antoine Ranvier
who discovered it around 1878. A neuroglia
known as Schwann cells (contain myelin in
membrane) are responsible for the protection
of long axons in the PNS, whereas
oligodendrocytes protect the long axon’s in the
Dendrites:
CNS. Myelin gives a white appearance receive
signals

Axon:
conducts
Impulses

Pictures from
Human
Biology Page
249 &
http://en.wiki
pedia.org/wiki
/Schwann_cell
 The Organization of the Nervous System
Nerve impulses send messages throughout the whole nervous system. An axon is either
resting or active; thus, they are either in the resting potential or the active potential state. A
voltmeter can record which state the nerve is in by measuring the negativity of the inside of
a neuron compared to its outside.
Resting Potential
• No impulse conducting within axon
• Inside more negative than outside
• About -60 to -70 millivolts
• Dissimilarity in ion dispersal on either side of membrane
• Dissimilar dispersal is due to sodium-potassium pump which
maintains appropriate concentrations of sodium and potassium
intracellular and extracellular

Pictures from Human Biology Pg 250

Action Potential
• Nerve impulses occur; change in polarity
• Inside less negative than outside
• About +40 millivolts
• Inward sodium exceeds outward potassium, causing
depolarization of membrane potential
• Threshold is reached around 15 millivolts above resting
membrane potential
• Repolarization occurs as potassium leaves axon
The Organization of the Nervous System

Action potentials can be transmitted along the

nodes by way of saltatory conduction, where
each action potential generates another by
jumping. To ensure that nerve impulses (active
potentials) always travel down an axon to the
end, the axon undergoes a refractory period
where the sodium gates cannot open.
Pictures from Human Biology Pg 251
 The Organization of the Nervous
System
Each axon ends in an axon terminal which lie in
close proximity to other neurons cell bodies or
dendrites. The axon terminals house molecules
known as neurotransmitters. The area between
the axon terminal and other neuron is called the
synapse. A tiny gap known as the synaptic cleft
separates the two neurons. Once a nerve impulse
travels down the axon, calcium ions enter the
terminal causing enclosed neurotransmitters to
leave the terminal where they bind to a receiving
neurons receptor and allow sodium to pass
through an ion channel.
Since neurons have several dendrites, they can
have many synapses with other sending neurons.
An excitatory neurotransmitter can send a
potential change causing the neuron to move
closer to an action potential, whereas an
inhibitory neurotransmitter can send a potential
change causing a neuron to move away from an
action potential. When a neuron receives an
excitatory or inhibitory signal they process it. This
process is known as integration, where they sum
up the signal.
Pictures from Human Biology Pg 252
• The Organization of the Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
• The Limbic System & Mental Functions
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System Diseases
• Drug and Alcohol Effects

Pictures from Human Biology Pg 254

 The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, both of which are protected by a
membrane called the meninges. Between the meninges, in the brains ventricles, and in the
spinal cord canal is a shielding cushy fluid known as the cerebrospinal fluid. There are 2
types of tissue in the CNS: white matter consists of tracts, or a collection of myelinated
axons, whereas gray matter consists only of cell bodies that have short nonmyelinated
axons.

The spinal cord has a central canal which is surrounded by the gray and white matter.
Together, they make up the spinal cord. The cord is protected by vertebrae which are
irregular shaped bones, collectively known as the vertebral column. Extending out of the
vertebrae and attached to the spinal cord are the spinal nerves. Entering into the gray
matter are dorsal roots (contains sensory fibers) and exiting are ventral roots (contain motor
fibers). The left and right sides of the brain control the opposite sides of the body. The white
matter in the spinal cord takes messages to the brain (dorsally) and messages from the brain
(ventrally). Pictures from Human Biology Pg 255
 The Central Nervous
System: Brain & Spinal Cord

The primary function of the spinal

cord is to make communication
available between the nerves and
the brain.
• Nerve impulses travel to spinal
cord sensory axons
• Interneurons process data and
send messages to motor neurons
• Response to messages via muscle
contractions Pictures from Human Biology Pg 255
 The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
The brain has four ventricles: two lateral ventricles (cerebrum), a third (diencephalon)
and fourth ventricle (brain stem and cerebellum).
CEREBRUM
The largest part of the brain
known as the cerebrum is the
last station which receives and
processes input. The cerebrum
is split into two hemispheres,
communicates with all parts of
the brain, and is responsible
for instructing motor
responses. The left and right
cerebral hemispheres are
connected via the corpus
callosum, a white matter
structure consisting of several
axonal projections. The
cerebrum has sulci, small
grooves, that separate the
hemispheres into lobes.

1. Frontal lobe (behind forehead): Primary motor

area, processing center
2. Parietal lobe (behind frontal): Primary
somatosensory area/integration occurs
3. Occipital lobe (behind parietal)
4. Temporal lobe (underneath frontal & parietal)
Pic from Human Biology Pg 257 & http://www.becomehealthynow.com/article/bodynervousadvanced/819/2/
 The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
A strong layer of gray matter known as the cerebral cortex covers both
hemispheres, contains a great deal of cell bodies, and is responsible for the
following: memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and
consciousness.¹

Cerebral
Cortex

Picture and verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex & Human Biology Page 256
 The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord

Broca’s
Area

Wernicke’s
Area

Processing written and verbal speech takes place in the

Wernicke’s Area where it is then passed to the Broca’s Area
for speech musculature. Any damage to the Wernicke’s
area will result in the failure to understand and follow
speech, whereas any damage to the Broca’s area will result
in a failure to speak and write.

Picture from Human Biology Pg 256-257

The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal
Cord
Primary Motor and Somatosensory Area’s

Picture from Human Biology Pg 258

 The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
The diencephalon is a
part in the middle of the
brain that makes up the
third ventricle. It
contains the
hypothalamus, a
processing center which
aids in homeostasis,
and the thalamus, a
processing center for all
sensory input (except
smell), memory, and
emotions. The
hypothalamus manages
hunger and thirst, body
temperature, sleep, and
water balance. The
thalamus manages
visual, speech, and
somatosensory
information and then
transmits it to the
appropriate area’s
within the cerebrum. Picture from Human
Biology Pg 259
 The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord

Cerebellum

The cerebellum is at the back of the brain and lies underneath the occipital
lobe. The cerebellum has two sections that are mainly compiled of white
matter with a thin gray matter layer. This section is responsible for receiving
and processing information from eyes, ears, muscles and joints; and then
sending impulses to skeletal muscles.

Picture from http://www.becomehealthynow.com/article/bodynervousadvanced/819/2/

 The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
The brain stem is the lower bottom part of the
brain that connects to the spinal cord and
contains the midbrain (mesencephalon), pons
(metencephalon), and medulla oblongata. The
midbrain adjoins the diencephalon and pons.
Motor skills are associated with a region of the
midbrain. The pons is responsible for
transmitting sensory information between the
cerebellum and the cerebrum. Also, the pons
controls respiration through functions with the
medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata lies
at the lowest part of the brain stem and is
responsible for controlling the hearts rate,
breathing, blood pressure, swallowing,
hiccupping, vomiting, sneezing, coughing and
defecation.

The reticular formation is centered in the pons,

the middle of the brain stem, and runs through
the midbrain down through the medulla
oblongata. The reticular formation controls
physical behaviors such as sleeping, fatigue,
awaking, alertness, walking, eating, urination,
defecation, and sexual activity.¹
Pictures and verbiage from Human Biology Pg 256-259 &
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_formation
• The Organization of the Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
• The Limbic System & Mental Functions
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System Diseases
• Drug and Alcohol Effects

Picture from
http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubboo
ks/morris5/chapter2/custom1/deluxe-
content.html
 The Limbic System & Mental Functions
The limbic system is a group of
structures in the middle of the brain that
surrounds the thalamus and
hypothalamus, collectively the
diencephalon. The amygdala (adds
emotional overtones to stimuli or
memories) and hippocampus (learning
and memory) are two structures within
the limbic system.
Memory Types
Short-term memory takes place in the
prefrontal area, behind the forehead.
Long-term memory is a mixture of episodic
memory (people and events) and semantic
memory (words and numbers). Utilizing
motor areas of the cerebrum, skill memory
involves the performance of physical
activities. More neurotransmitters are
released after intense synapses leading to
an event known as long-term potential
Picture from
(LTP) which may be responsible for
http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/morris5/chapter2/custom1/deluxe-
content.html
memory storage.
• The Organization of the Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
• The Limbic System & Mental Functions
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System Diseases
• Drug and Alcohol Effects

Pictures from Human Biology Pg

262
 The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is the second

unit to the nervous system, consisting of
nerves. Nerves that arise from the brain are
denoted as cranial nerves (quantity 12), and
nerves that arise from the spinal cord are
denoted as spinal nerves (31 pairs). All nerves
from both units are made of axons.
Pictures from Human Biology Pg 255-62

Sensory neurons cell bodies are

contained in dorsal root ganglions. A
dorsal root controls impulses inward
through sensory fibers whereas a
ventral root controls impulses outward
through motor fibers. Every spinal
nerve serves certain parts of the body.
 The Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS has two parts: the somatic system and the autonomic system. The somatic
system contains all the nerves which operate for skin, muscles, and tendons. This can
involve voluntary and involuntary responses. Reflexes are an automatic response to
something, such as pulling your hand away from a hot fire. The autonomic system
maintains homeostasis by acting as a control system. The controls are involuntary and
automatic, they work by stimulating internal organs, and for each impulse they use two
neurons and one ganglion.

Pictures from
Human Biology Pg
263
The main components
of the autonomic
The Peripheral Nervous System
system are its
sympathetic division
and parasympathetic
division. The
sympathetic division
nerves arise from the
thoracic and lumber
parts of the spinal cord
and are associated
with motor responses
like fight or take flight
(faster heart beat,
dilated pupils, inhibits
digestive system). The
parasympathetic
division nerves arise
from the sacral part of
the spinal cord and
some cranial nerves,
and are associated
with motor responses
like rest and digest
(relaxation, digestion, Picture from
slows heart rate). http://www.britannica.com/bps/home#tab=active~checked%2Citems~checked%3E%2Fbps%2Ftopic%2F443285%2F
parasympathetic-nervous-system&title=parasympathetic%20nervous%20system%20--
%20Britannica%20Online%20Encyclopedia
• The Organization of the Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
• The Limbic System & Mental Functions
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System Diseases
• Drug and Alcohol Effects

In this television screen grab taken from

Fox News, a scan shows a man's brain
affected by Dandy-Walker syndrome. All
of the black in the middle is cerebral fluid
and the brain matter is the rim of white
along the outside of the skull.

Pictures & Verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocephalus#Symptoms

 Nervous System Diseases
1. Alzheimer's - Terminal illness, causes 6. Multiple Sclerosis – Bodies immune
dementia, degenerative disease, short system attacks myelin sheath, affects
and long-term memory loss, anger, white matter, causes muscle weakness
confusion, loss of bodily functions, death. and spasms, difficulty with balance,
moving, speech, visual, and bowel
2. Parkinson's – degenerative disease,
problems.
movement disorder, impairs speech and
motor skills, tremors, muscle rigidity, and 7. Leukodystrophies – Group of disorders
posture problems. affecting brains white matter, defect in
myelin sheath growth, genetic disorder,
3. Motor Neuron disease – Group of diseases
slowing of all motor skills such as eating,
affecting the motor neurons, muscle
speech, vision, hearing, and movement.
activities such as breathing, speaking,
weakness and stiffness in muscles. 8. Meningitis – Inflammation of
meninges, brain and spinal cord, can be
4. Huntington's – Genetic disorder, neuron
treated with antibiotics, causes
cells in brain die, lack of coordination,
headache, fever, neck stiffness, and
speech problems, chewing and
rash.
swallowing problems, and slowing of
thought process/thinking. 9. Hydrocephalus – Cerebrospinal fluid
buildup in brain ventricles, headache,
5. Paralysis/Paraplegia/Quadriplegia – loss of
vomiting, seizures, mental retardation,
feeling an muscle function due to nerve
founds in infants due to sudden
or brain damage, paraplegia affects
enlargement of head, and in adults brain
thoracic, lumbar, or sacral regions,
cannot enlarge and pushes against skull.
quadriplegia affects all limbs
Some mental diseases can be treated such as bipolar, depression, and schizophrenia.
• The Organization of the Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
• The Limbic System & Mental Functions
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System Diseases
• Drug and Alcohol Effects

“A rational scale to assess

the harm of drugs.”

Verbiage and Picture from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_abuse
 Pictures from

Drug and Alcohol Effects http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Marijuna &
http://en.wikipedia.
Drugs have an effect on the limbic system and either elevate or reduce org/wiki/Cocaine

neurotransmitter functions. Anyone who is physically or mentally dependant

on a drug is a drug abuser. Drugs can have a variety of effects such as
stimulants, depressants, or psychoactive effects. 6. Marijuana – Causes euphoria,
mental and vision obscurities,
1. Alcohol – Causes damage to tissues and organs, leaches into
paranoia, cravings, heart disease,
cell membranes, liver works harder to detoxify and can become
lung damage, reduction in motor
scarred, depressant, impaired vision, speech, concentration, and
skills and reaction time,
coordination. Can lead to comma and/or death.
psychoactive.
2. Nicotine - Causes damage to arteries, heightens risk of clots,
shown to inhibit apoptosis, increase blood pressure, heart rate, Marijuana
respiration, and blood glucose levels, stimulant.
3. Cocaine – Causes damage to, increases heart rate, blood
pressure, sex drive and euphoria, lack of appetite, tremors,
restlessness, interferes with synapses, can lead to cardiac and
respiratory related death, seizures, cerebral hemorrhaging,
stroke and heart attack, stimulant. Coming off the drug causes
depression, fatigue, irritability and confusion.
4. Methamphetamines – Causes a reversal of sleepiness and
fatigue, hyper, easily agitated, possible violent or erratic
Cocaine
behavior, speech and vision problems, hallucinations, causes
dental hygiene problems, hypertension, stroke, heart valve
problems, stimulant.
5. Heroin – Very addictive drug, causes respiratory depression,
interact with neurotransmitters causing euphoria, pain reduction,
obscure mental functions, easy to overdose and die on, higher
likelihood of diseases transmitted by shared needles, depressant.
 Drug and Alcohol Effects

Pictures from Human Biology Pg 267

 Works Cited
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