lecture #1c

Chapter Outline
What is Alloy?
Composed of 2 or more chemical elements, at least
one of it is metal.

Contains 2 basic forms; solid solution and
intermetallic compounds

Solute and solvent

Crystal structure maintained during alloying called
solid solution

Substitutional Solid Solution size similar to solvent

Interstitial solid solution size much smaller than
solvent atom
Intermetallic Compound
Complex structure which consist of two metals

Solute are present in solvent atom

Strong hard, brittle, and hard

High melting point

Good oxidation resistance

Low density

E.g: Ti
3
Al, Ni
3
Al, Fe
3
Al
Two-Phase System
(a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed
throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper alloy.
The grains represent lead in solid solution in copper, and the particles are
lead as a second phase.
(b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase system consisting of two sets of grains:
dark, and light. The dark and the light grains have separate compositions
and properties.
Alloy consist of two or more solid phase
Two solid phase called two phase system
Homogenous portion which each has it own characteristics.
e.g: sand and water, or ice in water
Such as small amount of lead in solid solution copper, lead
dispersed through out of structure.
Phase diagrams show the mixture of
phases present in thermodynamic
equilibrium
Tells you what phase(s) present for a given
temperature and composition roadmap
Temperature vs. Composition
One basis is: Temp. vs Time cooling curves
It is very valuable to be able to construct a
phase diagram and know how to use it to
predict behaviour of materials
Phase Diagram
Binary Isomorphous Alloy System
Binary Isomorphous Alloy System:
Nickel-Copper Alloy Phase Diagram
Lever rule
Wt fraction of solid phase = X
s
= w
o
w
l
/ w
s
w
l


Wt fraction of liquid phase= X
l
= w
s
-w
o
/ w
s
-w
l
A copper nickel alloy contains 47wt % Cu and 53 wt% Ni and is at
1300
o
C.
1. What is the weight percent of copper in the liquid and solid
phase at this temperature?
2. What weight percent of this alloy is liquid and what weight
percent of solid?
The intersection of the 1300
O
C tie line with the
liquidus gives 55wt% Cu in the liquid phase and the
intersection of the solidus of 1300
O
C tie line gives
42wt% Cu in the solid phase.

From figure w
o
=53%, w
l
=45% and w
s
=58%.

(i) Wt fraction of liquid phase, X
l

= w
s
-w
o
/w
s
-w
l
= 58-53/58-45
= 0.38 (Wt of liquid phase is 38%)

(ii) Wt fraction of solid phase, X
s

= w
o
-w
l
/w
s
-w
l

= 53-45/58-45
= 0.62 (Wt % of solid phase= 62%)
Lines on the Phase Diagram
liquidus - line representing the temperatures at
which various compositions begin to freeze upon
cooling (liquid and mush)
solidus - line representing the temperatures at
which various compositions finish freezing upon
cooling (mush and solid)
solvus - line representing the limit of solid
solubility; a line separating solid phases (1 phase
and 2 phases)
What phases are present?
Point Z lies in the field where two phases, B + L, are in
equilibrium, therefore the two phases present have to be solid B
and Liquid.
What are the proportions of the phases present?
To determine the proportions of B + L at Z, carry
out the following steps:
Draw a line through Z, parallel to the base of the
diagram (This line is at a constant temperature and
is an isothermal) This line should extend only to
the boundaries of the B + L field - Points X and Y.
Measure the three line segments - ZX, Zy and XY
and ratio these lengths using the lever rule.
% B = ZX/XY * 100 = 38% B
%L = ZY/XY * 100 = 62% L

Binary Eutectic Alloy System:
Lead-Tin Phase Diagram
Eutectic reaction:
L (61.9%Sn) --> (19.2%Sn) + (97.5%Sn)
183
o
C

(
o
C
)



+
+
o
C
232
o
C
A has a low temperature phase dissolve about 5% B
A has a high temperature phase dissolve as much as 40% B
B can dissolve up to 10% A, the phase is labelled .
Try this:
1 kg of an alloy of 70% Pb and 30% Sn is slowly
cooled from 300
o
C. Refer to the lead-tin phase
diagram and calculate the following:
a) The wt% of the liquid and proeutectic alpha at
250
o
C
b) The wt% of the liquid and proeutectic alpha
just above the eutectic temp (183
o
C) and the
weight in kg of these phases
c) The weight in kg of alpha and beta formed by
the eutectic reaction.

Thank You

Iron-Carbon System

Compositions of Phases

Microstructure in Steels
Phase Diagram
Tells you what phase(s) are present for a
given temperature and composition
Temperature vs. Composition
Iron-Carbon System
Ferrous alloys, cast iron and cast steels used extensively
due to low cost and versatile properties.

Pure iron 0.008% carbon, steels up to 2.11%carbon, cast
iron up to 4% carbon.

Steels and cast iron representated by iron-carbon binary
system.

Solid phases in Fe-Fe
3
C phase diagram:
i. ferrite
ii. Austenite ()
iii. Cementite (Fe
3
C)
iv. ferrite
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this
diagram is one of the most important of all phase diagrams.




+
-Ferrite
ferrite or ferrite, maximum solid solubility of 0.025%C
at 723
o
C.
Relatively soft and ductile; magnetic at room
temperature to 768
o
C.
Amount of Carbon can affect the mechanical properties
of ferrite.

Between 1394 to 912
o
C iron undergoes change from
BCC to FCC structure that is -iron or most commonly
called austenite
Solid solubility up to 2.11% carbon at 1148
o
C.
Have interstitial carbon in FCC structure
Single phase FCC structure ductile at elevated
temperature, good formability, and non magnetic steels
Austenite ()
Cementite (Fe
3
C)
Intermetallic compound (between Fe and C)
Content of 100% of iron carbide (Fe
3
C), which is carbon
content of 6.67%, and 93.3% Fe.
Very hard and brittle.
-ferrite
Solid solution of Carbon in -iron
Maximum solubility ~0.09% at 1465
o
C
BCC structure
Reactions in Fe-Fe
3
C phase diagram
Peritectic Reaction:
This reaction occurs at 1495C and it can be written as
Liquid (0.53 % C) + (0.09 % C) (0.17 % C)

Ferrite is high-temperature phase and is not encountered
in plain-carbon steels at lower temperatures.

Eutectic Reaction:
This reaction occurs at 1148C and is written as
Liquid (4.43 % C) austenite (2.08 % C) + Fe3C (6.67 % C)

This reaction is not encountered in plain-carbon steels because
their carbon content is too low.
Eutectoid Reaction:
This reaction occurs at 723C and can be written as
austenite (0.8 % C) ferrite (0.02 % C) + Fe3C (6.67 % C)

The eutectoid reaction takes place completely in the solid phase,
and is important for some of the heat treatments of plain-
carbon steels.
Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below
Eutectoid Temperature
Schematic illustration
of the microstructures
for an iron-carbon alloy
of eutectoid
composition (0.77%
carbon), above and
below the eutectoid
temperature of 727 C
(1341 F).
Various can be changed depend on the carbon content,
amount of plastic deformation (working) and heat
treatment.
At 0.07% carbon content called eutectic point.
Where cooled very slowly from high temperature 1100
o
C
in the austenite phase.
At 727
o
C austenite is transformed into ferrite(BCC)+
cementite which is the the reaction called eutectoid reaction.
Single solid phase change into two solid phase (ferrite
+cementite). This structure is called pearlite.
Microstructure of pearlite in 1080 steel,
formed from austenite of eutectoid
composition. In this lamellar structure, the
lighter regions are ferrite, and the darker
regions are carbide. Magnification: 2500X.
Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
Mechanical properties of pearlite are intermediate
between those ferrite (soft and ductile) and
cementite (hard and brittle).
Less then 0.77% carbon consist of pearlite
phase + ferrite phase. The ferrite phase is called
proeutectoid ferrite, forms at temperature higher
than the eutectoid temperature of 727
o
C in the +
region.
More than 0.77% carbon, austenite transform
into pearlite and cementite. The cementite int the
pearlite is called eutectoid cementite, and the
cementite phase is called proeuctectoid cementite.

Hypoeutectoid Plain- Carbon steels
Microstructure of a 0.35% C
hypoeutectoid plain-carbon
steel slowly cooled from
austenite region. The white
is proeutectoid ferrite; the
dark constituent is pearlite
Microstructure of a 1.25% C
hypereutectoid plain-carbon
steel slowly cooled from
austenite region. In this
structure proectectoid
cementite appears in white
thas has formed at the
former austenite grain
boundaries. The remaining
structure consist of coarse
lamellar pearlite.
Hypereutectoid Plain- Carbon steels
Question
A 0.80 % C eutectoid carbon-steel is slowly cooled from 750 Celcius
to a temperature just slightly below 723 Celsius. Assuming that the
austenite is completely tranformed to alpha ferrite and cementite;
Calculate the weight percent eutectoid ferrite formed
Calculate the weight percent eutectoid cementite formed
Austenite, Ferrite, & Martensite
The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite.
(d) The effect of percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice
dimensions for martensite.
Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms. Note, also, the
increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content; this effect
causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a
rectangular prism.
Quiz 2
1. Define the following phases that exist in the Fe-Fe
3
C
phase diagram:
(a) austenite, (b) ferrite, (c) cementite, (d) ferrite.

2. A 0.55 %C hypoeutectoid plain-carbon steel is slowly
cooled from 950C to a temperature just slightly
below 723C.
(a) Calculate the weight percent proeutectoid ferrite
in the steel.
(b) Calculate the weight percent eutectoid ferrite and
the eutectoid cementite in the steel.
Cast Iron
Refers to a ferrous alloy composed of iron, carbon
(ranging from 2.11% to 4.5%), and silicon (up to 3.5%).
Phase diagram for the iron-carbon system with graphite (instead of
cementite) as the stable phase.
Thank You
Metal Alloys:
Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys

Heat treatment

Hardenability

Annealing
Austenite, Ferrite, & Martensite
The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite.
(d) The effect of percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice
dimensions for martensite.
Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms. Note, also, the
increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content; this effect
causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a
rectangular prism.
Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys
Microstructure can be modified by heat treatment
techniques, by controlling the heating and cooling of
the alloys at various state. It will force phase
transformation which effect the mechanical
properties.

Effects of thermal treatment depend on the alloy, on it
composition and microstructure, on the degree of prior
cold work, and on the rates of heating and cooling
during heat treatment.
Heat Treating: Concept I
To force a metal to do something the normal
laws of solubility will not let it do.

Usual case is to cause one phase to dissolve in
another when it normally wouldnt.
Heat Treating: Concept II
So, we must have a two-phase region (at room
temperature) with a single phase region at a higher
temperature.
When we heat up to higher temperature, the metal
becomes one phase.
Then we cool fast enough that we retain the higher
temperature phase at the lower temperature.
Where it may exist as that phase or change
(transform) into something else thats useful.

Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below
Eutectoid Temperature
Schematic illustration
of the microstructures
for an iron-carbon alloy
of eutectoid
composition (0.77%
carbon), above and
below the eutectoid
temperature of 727 C
(1341 F).
Austenite
To
Pearlite
Transformation
(a)Austenite-to-pearlite transformation of iron-
carbon alloy as a function of time and
temperature.

(b)Slow cooling
Strength of Eutectic Alloys
Interlamellar Spacing
Eutectic Grain Size
Shape of the Eutectic
Amount of Eutectic
Martensite
Plain-carbon steel austenite condition rapidly cooled to room
temperature by quenching in water.

A supersaturated interstitial solid solution of carbon in body
centered tetragonal iron

Structure change from austenite to martensite

The temperature,upon cooling, at which the austenite to
martensite transformation starts is called the martensite start,
Ms.

The temperature at which transformation finishes is called the
martensite finish, Mf ,temperature.

The Ms, temperature for Fe-C alloys decrease as the weight
percent carbon increases in these alloys.
Quench
A rapid cooling after solution heat treatment.

Is generally done in water or oil; tool steels often
cooled in air.

If Austenite quenched rapidly enough and to a low
enough temperature, below Ms, martensite is
produced.

It is a metastable phase (not an equilibrium
phase) hard, brittle, interstitial supersaturated
solid solution of carbon in BCT iron.
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
C
)

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
F
)

Austenite rapidly cooled to room temperature by quench in
water it will changed to martensite.
The temperature, upon cooling at which autenite-to-
martensite transformation called martensite start M
s
,
finish called martensite finish M
f
.
The Ms decrease as the weight percent of carbon increase
Martensite
Austenite is cooled at a high temperature FCC is transformed to
body centered tetragonal (BCT) which this structure is called
martensite
Long lamellae and others slightly elongated of its priciples
Hard and brittle and lack of toughness
(b)
(a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of
martensite containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite;
they have the same composition as the original austenite (white regions).
Magnification: 1000X.
Structure of lath martensite Plate type
The transformation of austenite to martensite in Fe-C alloys is
considered difussionless since the transformation taken too rapidly.

Carbon contents in Fe-C martensite of less than about 0.2% C the
austenite transform to a BCC ferrite crystal structure.
Tempered Martensite
Hardness of tempered martensite, as a
function of tempering time, for 1080
steel quenched to 65 HRC. Hardness
decreases because the carbide
particles coalesce and grow in size,
thereby increasing the interparticle
distance of the softer ferrite.
Martensite is tempered to improve mechanical properties.
Tempering by heating: hardness is reduced and toughness is
improved.
Heating at 150
o
C -650
o
C where it decompose to 2 phase consist of
BCC ferrite and small particles of cementite
Increasing tempering time and temperature, hardness decrease due
to particles cementite grow bigger
o
C

o
C

o
C

o
C

o
C
o
F)

o
F)

o
F)

o
F)

o
F)

Spheroidite
Martensite is heated to just below eutectoid temperature
and the held for a period of time (anneling) such for a day
Microstructure of
eutectoid steel.
Spheroidite is formed by
tempering the steel at
700 C (1292 F).
Magnification: 1000X.
Isothermal Decomposition of Austenite
Previous section the reaction products from the
decomposition of austenite of eutectoid plain-carbon
steels for very slow or rapid conditions have been
describe

Now, what reaction products form when austenite of
eutectoid steels is rapidly cooled to temperature below
the eutectoid temperature and the isothermally
transformed.

Isothermal tranformation experiments to investigate
the microstructural changes for the decomposition of
eutectoid austenite.
Specimens are 1
st
austenitized in furnace temperature
above the eutectoid temperature.
Then rapidly cooled(quenched) in a liquid salt bath at the
desired temperature below eutectoid temperature at various
time intervals.
Then samples quenched into water at room temperature.
The microstructure after each transformation time can then
be examined at room temperature
After being austenitized, sample are hot quench in to salt
bath at 705
o
C. After 6 min, coarse pearlite formed to a
small extent.
After 67min, the austenite is completely transformed to
coarse pearlite.
S curved next to temperature axis indicate the time
necessary for the isothermal transformation of austenite to
begin, and the second curve indicate the time required for
the transformation to be completed
Coarse Pearlite, Fine Pearlite, Bainite, Martnesite
Bainite
Fine microstructure of ferrite and cementite
Exist when cooling rates are higher
Stronger and more ductile than pearlite steel at the
same hardness level
Upper bainite Lower bainite
Isothermal transformation of
eutectoid steels at temperature 723
o
C
and about 550
o
C produce pearlite
microstructure (hot quench).
Transformation temperature decrease
in this range, the pearlite change from
a coarse to fine structure.
Rapid quenching from 723
o
C of
eutectoid steel where it is in austenite
condition, transform austenite into
martensite.
If euctectoid steels in the austenite
condition are hot quenched to
temperature in the 550-250
o
C range
and are isothermally transformed,
structure intermediate between pearlite
and martensite, called bainite.
Upper bainite formed by isothermal
transformation temperature between
550-350
o
C, large, rodlike cementite
region.
Lower bainite formed from 350-
250
o
C, fine cementite particles.
Continous Cooling Transformation Diagram for
a Eutectoid Plain-Carbon Steel
Industrial heat treating operations, in
most cases a steel is not isothermally
transformed at a temperature above the
martensite start temperature but
continously cooled from the austenitic
temperature to room temperature.
The transformation from austenite to
pearlite occurs over the range of
temperature rather than at a single
isothermal temperature.
The continuous cooling
transformation diagram start and finish
lines are shifted to longer times and
slightly lower temperature below about
450
o
C for the austenite to bainite
transformation.
Figure show different cooling rates of
eutectoid plain carbon steels cooled
continuously from austenite region to
room temperature.
A curve very slow cooling, such as by
shutting off power of an electric furnace
and allowing the steel cool as the
furnace cools. Microstructure would be
coarse pearlite.
B more rapid cooling such as by
removing austenitized steel from a
furnace and allowing the steel to cool in
the air. Fine pearlite microstructure
C starts with the formation of
pearlite, but there is insufficient time to
complete the austenite -to-pearlite
transformation. The remaining austenite
do not transform to pearlite will
transform to martensite at lower temp.
250
o
C. Mix of pearlite and martensite.
Cooling at a rate faster that curve E
(critical cooling rate), will produce fully
hardened martensite structure.
Variation on the microstructure of
eutectoid carbon steel by continously
cooling at different rates
Hardness and Toughness of
Annealed Steels
(a) and (b) Hardness and (c) toughness for annealed plain-carbon
steels, as a function of carbide shape. Carbides in the pearlite are
lamellar. Fine pearlite is obtained by increasing the cooling rate.
The spheroidite structure has spherelike carbide particles.
Note that the percentage of pearlite begins to decrease after
0.77% carbon.
Mechanical Properties of
Annealed Steels
Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition
and microstructure. Note (in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength
and (in (b)) the decrease in ductility and toughness, with increasing
amounts of pearlite and iron carbide.
Hardenability of ferrous alloy
HARDENABILITY
The capability of an alloy to be hardened by heat treatment
A measure of the depth of hardness that can be obtained
by heating and subsequent quenching
Most common test is Jominy hardenability test.
The hardenability of steels depends primarily on:
i. The composition of steel
ii. The austenitic grain size
iii. The structure of the steel before quenching and
iv. The cooling rate
Jominy test
Jominy Test
Annealing
Temperature higher than recrystallization
temperature such as copper ranges 200-
300C, Annealing to recover the original
properties from 260-650C.
Full annealing term for annealing of ferrous
alloys, generally low carbon and medium-
carbon steels. Steel heated at A1or A3, and
the cooling slowly in a furnace. Obtained
coarse pearlite which soft and ductile and
has small uniform grains.
Heat-treating temperature ranges for plain-carbon steels,
as indicated on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram.
Normalizing
The normalizing heat treatment for steel
consists of heating within the austenitic
region and then cooling in still air.
Some of the purposes for normalizing
include:
1. to refine the grain structure;
2. to increase the strength of the steel, as
compared to annealed steel;
3. to reduce compositional segregation in
castings or forgings and thus provide a more
uniform structure.
4. to avoid excessive softness from
annealing of steels cooling in still air
Normalizing
Fine pearlite with small uniform grains.
Higher strength and hardness lower ductility
than full annealing.
To obtain uniform structure, to decrease
residual stresses and to improve
machinability

Hardness of steels in the quenched and normalized
conditions, as a function of carbon content.
Tempering
Thermal treatment of steels (generally done below
1330
o
F).
The purpose is to reduce brittleness caused by
previous rapid cooling that created the martensite.
Strength/hardness properties are reduced,
toughness and ductility improved.
Austempering
Heated steel is quenched from austenizing
temperature rapidly enough to avoid formation of
ferrite and pearlite.
Certain temperature until isothermal transformation
from austenite to bainite is complete, then cooled to
room temperature
Medium of quench is molten salt cooled in still air
Martempering
The martempering or marquenching process for a plain-carbon
steel produces a martensitic microstructure and consists of:
1. austenitizing the steel;
2. quenching the steel in oil or molten salt at a temperature just
slightly above the Ms temperature;
3. holding the steel in the quenching medium temperature for a
time period sufficient to provide thermal equilibrium of the
steel with the medium, without causing the initiation of the
austenite-to-bainite transformation;
4. cooling the steel at a moderate rate to room temperature.
Martempering
The advantages of martempering are
i. The minimization of distortion and
cracking of the workpiece.
ii. By subsequent tempering, the
martempered steel develops a tempered
martensite microstructure which provides for
higher impact energy.
Ausforming
In the austempering process, the steel is austenitized, then quenched in a
molten salt bath at a temperature just above the steel Ms temperature, held
isothermally until the austenite-to- bainite transformation is complete, then
cooled to room temperature in air.
Thank You
Describe the purpose and effects of heat
treatment on plain carbon steel.
Describe the phase transformation process
during heat treatment stage of iron-carbon
alloy in relation to composition,
microstructure and properties.
Heat Treating: Concept I
To force a metal to do something the normal
laws of solubility will not let it do.

Usual case is to cause one phase to dissolve in
another when it normally wouldnt.

Varying the heating and cooling of plain carbon
steels to obtain different combinations of
mechanical properties.
Hardenability of ferrous alloy
HARDENABILITY
The capability of an alloy to be hardened by heat treatment
A measure of the depth of hardness that can be obtained
by heating and subsequent quenching
Most common test is Jominy hardenability test.
The hardenability of steels depends primarily on:
i. The composition of steel
ii. The austenitic grain size
iii. The structure of the steel before quenching and
iv. The cooling rate
Martensite
A plain-carbon steel in austenitic condition
is rapidly cooled to room temperature by
quenching in water.
Structure change from austenite to
martensite.
A supersaturated interstitial solid solution
of carbon in body centered tetragonal
(BCT) iron.
Martensite
The temperature, upon cooling, at which
the austenite to martensite transformation
starts is called the martensite start, Ms.
The temperature at which transformation
finishes is called the martensite finish, Mf,
temperature.
The Ms temperature for Fe-C alloys
decrease as the weight percent carbon
increases in these alloys.
Effect of carbon content on the martensite-
transformation start temperature M
s
for iron carbon
alloys.
Structure of lath martensite Plate type
The transformation of austenite to martensite in Fe-C alloys is
considered difussionless since the transformation taken too rapidly.

Carbon contents in Fe-C martensite of less than about 0.2% C the
austenite transform to a BCC ferrite crystal structure.
Discussion
Characterize the lath and plate martensite
microstructure.
Explain the hardness and strength of
martensites.

Quench
A rapid cooling after solution heat treatment.

Is generally done in water or oil; tool steels often
cooled in air.

If Austenite quenched rapidly enough--and to a low
enough temperature, below Ms, martensite is
produced.

It is a metastable phase (not an equilibrium phase)
hard, brittle, interstitial supersaturated solid solution
of carbon in BCT iron.
Jominy test
Isothermal Decomposition of
Austenite
Previous section the reaction products from the decomposition of
austenite of eutectoid plain-carbon steels for very slow and
rapid conditions have been describe

Now, what reaction products form when austenite of eutectoid
steels is rapidly cooled to temperature below the eutectoid
temperature and the isothermally transformed.

Isothermal tranformation experiements to investigate the
microstructural changes for the decomposition of eutectoid
asutenite.
Specimens are 1
st
austenitized in furnace temperature above
the eutectoid temperature.

Then rapidly cooled(quenched) in a liquid salt bath at the
desired temperature below eutectoid temperature at various
time intervals.

Then samples quenched into water at room temperature.
The microstructure after each transformation time can then be
examined at room temperature
After being austenitized, sample are hot quench in to salt bath at
705
o
C. After 6 min, coarse pearlite formed to a small extent.

After 67min, the austenite is completely transformed to coarse
pearlite.
S curved next to temperature axis indicate the time necessary for
the isothermal transformation of austenite to begin, and the
second curve indicate the time required for the transformation
to be completed
Isothermal transformation of
eutectoid steels at temperature 723
o
C
and about 550
o
C produce pearlite
microstructure (hot quench).
Transformation temperature decrease
in this range, the pearlite change from
a coarse to fine structure.
Rapid quenching from 723
o
C of
eutectoid steel where it is in austenite
condition, transform austenite into
martensite.
If euctectoid steels in the austenite
condition are hot quenched to
temperature in the 550-250
o
C range
and are isothermally transformed,
structure intermediate between pearlite
and martensite, called bainite.
Upper bainite formed by isothermal
transformation temperature between
550-350
o
C, large, rodlike cementite
region.
Lower bainite formed from 350-
250
o
C, fine cementite particles.
Upper bainite Lower bainite
Continous Cooling Transformation
Diagram for a Eutectoid Plain-Carbon
Steel
Industrial heat treating operations, in
most cases a steel is not isothermally
transformed at a temperature above the
martensite start temperature but
continously cooled from the austenitic
temperature to room temperature.
The transformation from austenite to
pearlite occurs over the range of
temperature rather than at a single
isothermal temperature.
The continuous cooling
transformation diagram start and finish
lines are shifted to longer times and
slightly lower temperature below about
450
o
C for the austenite to bainite
transformation.
Figure show different cooling rates of
eutectoid plain carbon steels cooled
continuously from austenite region to
room temperature.
A curve very slow cooling, such as by
shutting off power of an electric furnace
and allowing the steel cool as the
furnace cools. Microstructure would be
coarse pearlite.
B more rapid cooling such as by
removing austenitized steel from a
furnace and allowing the steel to cool in
the air. Fine pearlite microstructure
C starts with the formation of
pearlite, but there is insufficient time to
complete the austenite -to-pearlite
transformation. The remaining austenite
do not transform to pearlite will
transform to martensite at lower temp.
250
o
C. Mix of pearlite and martensite.
Cooling at a rate faster that curve E
(critical cooling rate), will produce fully
hardened martensite structure.
Variation on the microstructure of
eutectoid carbon steel by continously
cooling at different rates
Heat treatment of
Nonferrous Alloys and
Stainless Steel
Nonferrous alloy cannot be heat treated by technique
used on ferrous alloys. Do not undergo phase
transformation like those in steels
Hardening and strengthening of these alloys are
fundamentally different.
Aluminium alloys, copper alloys, some stainless steels
are hardened by a process called precipitation hardening
This heat treatment is technique in which small particles
(of a different phase, and called participates) are
uniformly dispersed in the matrix of the original phase.
Solid solubility of one element is exceed in other
element.
Involves 3 stages:
i. Solution heat treatment
ii. Quenching
iii. Aging
Percipitation hardening
Solution heat treatment
Sample is heated to a temperature between
solvus and solidus temperatures.
Soaked the sample until a uniform solid-solution
structure is produced.
Quenching
The sample is rapidly cooled to a lower
temperature (room temp) using water (cooling
medium).
The structure: supersaturated solid solution (
phase)
Aging
To form a finely dispersed precipitate in the alloy
The fine precipitate impedes dislocation
movement during deformation which strengthen
the alloy.
Aging
Alloy is reheated to an intermediate temperature and
then held there for a period of time.
At room temperature: natural aging
Above room temperature, the process is called artificial
aging
Several alluminium alloys harden and become stronger
over period of time at room temperature called natural
aging
In the percipitation process, reheated at elavated
temperature for an extended of time, the percitipate
begin to coalesce and grow. Become larger but fewer, this
process is called Over aging. Metal softer and and
weaker.
Maraging or martensite age hardening
For special group of high-strength iron base alloys.
One or more intermetallic compounds are precipated in
a matrix of low-carbon martensite.
Aging is done at 480
o
C. Maraging steels such as in
dies and tooling parts.
The effect of aging time and temperature on the yield
stress of 2014-T4 aluminum alloy. Note that, for each
temperature, there is an optimal aging time for
maximum strength.
Case Hardening
Alteration only the surface properties (surface indention, fatigue, and wear)
Application and parts such as gear teeth, cams, shafts, bearing, fasteners,
pins and etc.
Hardening is not desirable due to hard part lacks of necessary toughness
Small surface crack could propagate rapidly through cause total failure
Various surface-hardening process available; carburizing, carbonitriding,
cyaniding, boronizing, flame hardening, induction hardening and laser
hardening.
Surface Hardening
Carburizing Low-
carbon steel
(0.2% C),
alloy steels
(0.080.2%
C)
C Heat steel at 870950 C
(16001750 F) in an
atmosphere of carbonaceous
gases (gas carburizing) or
carbon-containing solids
(pack carburizing). Then
quench.
A hard, high-carbon surface
is produced. Hardness 55 to
65 HRC. Case depth < 0.5
1.5 mm ( < 0.020 to 0.060
in.). Some distortion of part
during heat treatment.
Gears, cams,
shafts,
bearings,
piston pins,
sprockets,
clutch plates
Carbonitriding Low-
carbon steel
C
and
N
Heat steel at 700800 C
(13001600 F) in an
atmosphere of carbonaceous
gas and ammonia. Then
quench in oil.
Surface hardness 55 to 62
HRC. Case depth 0.07 to 0.5
mm (0.003 to 0.020 in.).
Less distortion than in
carburizing.
Bolts, nuts,
gears
Cyaniding Low-
carbon steel
(0.2% C),
alloy steels
(0.080.2%
C)
C
and
N
Heat steel at 760845 C
(14001550 F) in a molten
bath of solutions of cyanide
(e.g., 30% sodium cyanide)
and other salts.
Surface hardness up to 65
HRC. Case depth 0.025 to
0.25 mm (0.001 to 0.010
in.). Some distortion.
Bolts, nuts,
screws, small
gears
Process Metals
hardened
Elemen
t added
to
surface
Procedure General Characteristics Typical
applications
Nitriding Steels (1%
Al, 1.5% Cr,
0.3% Mo),
alloy steels
(Cr, Mo),
stainless
steels, high-
speed tool
steels
N Heat steel at 500
600 C (9251100
F) in an
atmosphere of
ammonia gas or
mixtures of molten
cyanide salts. No
further treatment.
Surface hardness up to 1100
HV. Case depth 0.1 to 0.6
mm (0.005 to 0.030 in.) and
0.02 to 0.07 mm (0.001
to 0.003 in.) for high speed
steel.
Gears, shafts, sprockets,
valves, cutters, boring
bars, fuel-injection pump
parts
Boronizing Steels B Part is heated using
boron-containing
gas or solid in
contact with part.
Extremely hard and wear
resistant surface. Case depth
0.025 0.075 mm (0.001
0.003 in.).
Tool and die steels
Flame
hardening
Medium-
carbon
steels, cast
irons
- Surface is heated
with an
oxyacetylene torch,
then quenched with
water spray or other
quenching methods.
Surface hardness 50 to 60
HRC. Case depth 0.7 to 6
mm (0.030 to 0.25 in.).
Little distortion.
Gear and sprocket teeth,
axles, crankshafts, piston
rods, lathe beds and
centers
Induction
hardening
Same as
above
- Metal part is placed
in copper induction
coils and is heated
by high frequency
current, then
quenched.
Same as above Same as above
Austempering
Heated steel is quenched from austenizing temperature rapidly
enough to avoid formation of ferrite and pearlite.
Certain temperature until isothermal transformation from austenite to
bainite is complete, then cooled to room temperature
Medium of quench is molten salt cooled in still air
Martempering
The martempering or marquenching process for a plain-carbon steel produces a martensitic
microstructure and consists of:
1. austenitizing the steel;
2. quenching the steel in oil or molten salt at a temperature just slightly above the Ms
temperature;
3. holding the steel in the quenching medium temperature for a time period sufficient to
provide thermal equilibrium of the steel with the medium, without causing the initiation of
the austenite-to-bainite transformation;
4. cooling the steel at a moderate rate to room temperature.
The advantages of martempering are the minimization of distortion and cracking of the
workpiece. By subsequent tempering, the martempered steel develops a tempered martensite
microstructure which provides for higher impact energy.
Ausforming
In the austempering process, the steel is austenitized, then quenched in a
molten salt bath at a temperature just above the steel Ms temperature, held
isothermally until the austenite-to- bainite transformation is complete, then
cooled to room temperature in air.
Tutorial
Define aging, and what is the different between natural and artificial
aging.
Explain the difference between hardness and hardenability
Explain about percipitation hardening and how the microstructure
changes?
Describe about case hardening.
Describe the characteristic and structure of pearlite, austentine,
martensite, and cementite
Explain about normalizing heat treatment for steel and what are some of
it purposes?
Thank You
Metal Alloys:
Case Hardening of Ferrous Alloys
Case Hardening
Alteration only the surface properties (surface indention,
fatigue, and wear)
Application and parts such as gear teeth, cams, shafts,
bearing, fasteners, pins and etc.
Hardening is not desirable due to hard part lacks of
necessary toughness
Small surface crack could propagate rapidly through
cause total failure
Various surface-hardening process available;
carburizing, carbonitriding, cyaniding, boronizing, flame
hardening, induction hardening and laser hardening.
Outline of Heat Treatment
Processes for Surface Hardening

TABLE 4.1
Process Metals
hardened
Element
added to
surface
Procedure General
Characteristics
Typical
applications
Carburizing Low-
carbon
steel
(0.2% C),
alloy
steels
(0.08
0.2% C)
C Heat steel at 870
950 C (1600
1750 F) in an
atmosphere of
carbonaceous
gases (gas
carburizing) or
carbon-
containing solids
(pack
carburizing).
Then quench.
A hard, high-carbon
surface is produced.
Hardness 55 to 65
HRC. Case depth <
0.51.5 mm ( < 0.020
to 0.060 in.). Some
distortion of part
during heat
treatment.
Gears, cams,
shafts,
bearings,
piston pins,
sprockets,
clutch plates
Carbonitriding Low-
carbon
steel
C and N Heat steel at 700
800 C (1300
1600 F) in an
atmosphere of
carbonaceous gas
and ammonia.
Then quench in
oil.
Surface hardness 55
to 62 HRC. Case
depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm
(0.003 to 0.020 in.).
Less distortion than
in
carburizing.
Bolts, nuts,
gears



Outline of Heat Treatment
Processes for Surface Hardening
TABLE 4.1
Process Metals
hardened
Element
added to
surface
Procedure General
Characteristics
Typical
applications
Cyaniding Low-
carbon
steel
(0.2% C),
alloy
steels
(0.08
0.2% C)
C and N Heat steel at 760845
C (14001550 F) in a
molten bath of
solutions of cyanide
(e.g., 30% sodium
cyanide) and other
salts.
Surface hardness
up to 65 HRC.
Case depth 0.025
to 0.25 mm (0.001
to 0.010 in.).
Some distortion.
Bolts, nuts,
screws, small
gears
Nitriding Steels (1%
Al, 1.5%
Cr, 0.3%
Mo), alloy
steels (Cr,
Mo),
stainless
steels,
high-speed
tool steels
N Heat steel at 500600
C (9251100 F) in an
atmosphere of
ammonia gas or
mixtures of molten
cyanide salts. No
further treatment.
Surface hardness
up to 1100 HV.
Case depth 0.1 to
0.6 mm (0.005 to
0.030 in.) and
0.02 to 0.07 mm
(0.001
to 0.003 in.) for
high speed steel.
Gears, shafts,
sprockets,
valves,
cutters, boring
bars, fuel-
injection
pump parts



Outline of Heat Treatment
Processes for Surface Hardening

TABLE 4.1
Process Metals
hardened
Element
added to
surface
Procedure General
Characteristics
Typical
applications
Boronizing Steels B Part is heated using
boron-containing gas
or solid in contact with
part.
Extremely hard
and wear resistant
surface. Case
depth 0.025
0.075 mm (0.001
0.003 in.).
Tool and die
steels
Flame
hardening
Medium-
carbon
steels,
cast irons
None Surface is heated with
an oxyacetylene torch,
then quenched with
water spray or other
quenching methods.
Surface hardness
50 to 60 HRC.
Case depth 0.7 to
6 mm (0.030 to
0.25 in.). Little
distortion.
Gear and
sprocket teeth,
axles,
crankshafts,
piston rods,
lathe beds and
centers
Induction
hardening

Same as
above
None Metal part is placed in
copper induction coils
and is heated by high
frequency current, then
quenched.
Same as above Same as above



Thank You