Introduction

uniform flow: flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every point in the
fluid.
non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the
flow. (In practice, by this definition, every fluid that flows near a
solid boundary will be non-uniform - as the fluid at the boundary
must take the speed of the boundary, usually zero. However if the
size and shape of the of the cross-section of the stream of fluid is
constant the flow is considered uniform.)
steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and
cross-section) may differ from point to point but DO NOT change
with time.
unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow
is described as unsteady. (In practice there is always slight variations
in velocity and pressure, but if the average values are constant, the
flow is considered steady.)

Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow
all the particles proceed along smooth parallel paths and all
particles on any path will follow it without deviation.
Hence all particles have a velocity only in the direction of
flow.




Fig 1: Laminar flow
Typical
particles
path
Turbulent Flow
the particles move in an irregular manner through the flow field.
Each particle has superimposed on its mean velocity fluctuating velocity
components both transverse to and in the direction of the net flow.



Fig 2 Turbulent Flow

Transition Flow
exists between laminar and turbulent flow.
In this region, the flow is very unpredictable and often changeable back
and forth between laminar and turbulent states.
Modern experimentation has demonstrated that this type of flow may
comprise short burst of turbulence embedded in a laminar flow.

Particle
paths
Mass flow rate

mass flow rate =

time =

Volume flow rate Discharge

Discharge/volume flow rate =

=

mass of fluid
time taken to collect the fluid
mass
mass flow rate
volume of fluid
time
mass fluid rate
density
m
r
=
Basic principle of flow
1. The law of conservation of matter
stipulates that matter can be neither created nor destroyed, though it may be
transformed (e.g. by a chemical process).
Since this study of the mechanics of fluids excludes chemical activity from
consideration, the law reduces to the principle of conservation of mass.
2. The law of conservation of energy
states that energy may be neither created nor destroyed.
Energy can be transformed from one guise to another (e.g. potential energy
can be transformed into kinetic energy), but none is actually lost.
Engineers sometimes loosely refer to energy losses due to friction, but in
fact the friction transforms some energy into heat, so none is really lost.

3. The law of conservation of momentum
states that a body in motion cannot gain or lose
momentum unless some external force is applied.
The classical statement of this law is Newton's
Second Law of Motion, i.e
force = rate of change of momentum


Continuity (Principle of Conservation of Mass)
Matter cannot be created nor destroyed - (it is simply changed in to a
different form of matter).
This principle is known as the conservation of mass and we use it in
the analysis of flowing fluids.
The principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as control volumes
or surfaces
CONTROL
VOLUME
Control surface
Outflow Inflow
Figure 3.10: A control volume
For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says
Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase of mass in the control
. per unit time per unit time volume per unit time

For steady flow:
(there is no increase in the mass within the control volume)
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time
Figure 3.11: A streamtube section
Mass entering per unit time at
end 1 = Mass leaving per unit
time at end 2
flow is incompressible, the density of the fluid is constant throughout the fluid
continum. Mass flow, m, entering may be calculated by taking the product
(density of fluid, r) (volume of fluid entering per second Q)
Mass flow is therefore represented by the product rQ, hence
r Q (entering) = r Q (leaving)
But since flow is incompressible, the density is constant, so
Q (entering) = Q (leaving)
This is the continuity equation for steady incompressible flow.
If the velocity of flow across the entry to the control volume is measured, and that
the velocity is constant at V
1
m/s. Then, if the cross-sectional area of the streamtube
at entry is A
1
,
Q (entering) = V
1
A
1
Thus, if the velocity of flow leaving the volume is V
2
and the area of the streamtube
at exit is A
2
, then
Q (leaving) = V
2
A
2
Therefore, the continuity equation may also be written as
V
1
A
1
= V
2
A
2

Application of Continuity Equation
We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross sections which
change along their length.
A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is narrowing in the same
direction. By the continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the
same at each section - the mass going into the pipe is equal to the mass
going out of the pipe. So we can write:
r
1
A
1
V
1
= r
2
A
2
V
2

As we are considering a liquid, usually water,
which is not very compressible, the density
changes very little so we can say r1 =r2 =r.
This also says that the volume flow rate is
constant or that
Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at section
2
Q
1
= Q
2
A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
or V
2
=
Fig Pipe with contraction
A
1
V
1
A
2
The continuity principle can also be used to determine the
velocities in pipes coming from a junction.




Fig: A pipe with junction
Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the
junction
r
1
Q
1
= r
2
Q
2
+ r
3
Q
3

When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water) r1 = r2 = r
Q
1
= Q
2
+ Q
3
A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
+ A
3
V
3

Example
For a junction (shown in fig below), if pipe 1 diameter = 50
mm, mean velocity 2 m/s, pipe 2 diameter 40 mm takes 30% of
total discharge and pipe 3 diameter 60 mm. What are the values
of discharge and mean velocity in each pipe?

Q
1
= A
1
V
1
= = 0.00392 m
3
/s
But Q
2
= 0.3Q
1
= 0.001178 m
3
/s
Also Q
1
= Q
2
+ Q
3
Q
3
= Q
1
0.3Q
1
= 0.7Q
1
= 0.00275 m
3
/s
V
2
= Q
2
/ V
2
= 0.936 m/s
V
3
= Q
3
/ V
3
= 0.972 m/s

Work and Energy
(Principle Of Conservation Of Energy)
friction: negligible
sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is
constant. Recall :
Kinetic energy = mV
2
Gravitational potential energy = mgh
(m: mass, V: velocity, h: height above the datum).

To apply this to a falling body we have an initial velocity of zero, and
it falls through a height of h.
Initial kinetic energy = 0
Initial potential energy = mgh
Final kinetic energy = mV
2
Final potential energy = 0
We know that,
kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

mgh = mV
2
or
gh V 2
continuous jet of liquid






a continuous jet of water coming from a pipe with velocity V
1
.
One particle of the liquid with mass m travels with the jet and falls from
height z
1
to z
2
.
The velocity also changes from V
1
to V
2
. The jet is traveling in air where the
pressure is everywhere atmospheric so there is no force due to pressure
acting on the fluid.
The only force which is acting is that due to gravity. The sum of the kinetic
and potential energies remains constant (as we neglect energy losses due to
friction) so :
mgz
1
+ mV
1
2
= mgz
2
+ mV
2
2
As m is constant this becomes :
V
1
2
+ gz
1
= V
2
2
+ gz
2

Figure: The
trajectory of a
jet of water
Flow from a reservoir
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum
principle, which states that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the
change in momentum of flow per unit time in that direction. The force acting on
a fluid mass m is given by the Newtons second law of motion,