NDT Appreciation

Name Copyright 2004 WI Ltd
NDT Appreciation
NDT Methods
Penetrant Testing
Magnetic Particle
Testing
Eddy Current Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Radiographic Testing

Magnetic Flux Leakage
Acoustic Emission
Infrared Testing
Visual Testing
Other methods

NDT
Which method is the best ?
Depends on many factors and
conditions
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
NDT
Definition:
A procedure, which covers the inspection and/or testing of any
material, component or assembly by means, which do not affect
its ultimate serviceability.

NDT
Industries involved with NDT:
Oil and Gas
Construction
Metal Fabrication
Chemical
Aerospace
Power Generation
Transportation
Medical
Electronic
Metal Manufacturing
Composite Manufacturing
Inspection and Testing
Research and Development
Training and Certification


CERTIFICATIONS AND
QUALIFICATIONS
NDT personnels should posses high credibility
and integrity
Proper training and certification required
Training : By qualified training personnels and
accredited training centres
International Certification Schemes available:

Penetrant Testing
Surface Testing method
For detecting surface breaking defects (opened to
surface)
Applicable to all materials -except for excessively
porous (absorbing) materials

Also known as Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)
Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)
Penetrant Testing:
SurfaceTesting
OPEN TO SURFACE/
SURFACE BREAKING
SUBSURFACE
INTERNAL
Penetrant Testing can only detect surface breaking defects
Penetrant must be able to enter the defect to form indication
Cannot be detected by
Penetrant Testing
Maybe detected by Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
Not suitable for porous or very absorbent
materials

Examples:
Wood
Cloth
Unglazed ceramic /pottery
Basic Steps
Penetrant application
Removal of excess
penetrant
Pre-cleaning
Application of
Developer
Inspection
Post-cleaning
Penetrant Testing
Penetrating fluid (penetrant) applied to
component
Aerosol Spraying Immersion Brushing Electrostatic
Penetrant Testing
Penetrating fluid (penetrant) applied to
component and drawn into defect by
capillary action
Principle : Capillary Action
Interaction of adhesive and cohesive
forces
meniscus
Capillarity
The ability of a material to enter
opening examples: tube or defects
The formula
= 2S Cos
W
= Capillary pressure
S = Surface tension
= Contact angle
W = Width of opening
Penetrant Testing

Removal of excess penetrant
Removal of excess penetrant
Penetrant Testing
Application of developer
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant drawn back out of the defect by
reverse capillary action
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant which pulled out from the defect by the
developer forms indication of the defect
Indications
Advantages of PT
Applicable to non-ferromagnetics
Able to test large parts with a portable
kit
Batch testing
Applicable to small parts with complex
geometry
Simple,cheap easy to interpret
Sensitivity
Disadvantages of PT
Will only detect defects open to the
surface
Careful surface preparation required
Not applicable to porous materials
Temperature dependant
Cannot retest indefinitely
Compatibility of chemicals
System classification
PENETRANT
Colour Contrast
Fluorescent
Dual sensitivity
Colour Contrast Penetrant
Also known as Visible Dye Penetrant
Uses white light : Daylight or artificial white light
Bright coloured dye : usually RED
Fluorescent v Colour Contrast
Fluorescent more
sensitive
Less operator fatigue
with fluorescent
More difficulty in
monitoring
fluorescent
penetrant removal
Water Washable Penetrant
Also known as SELF-EMULSIFIED PENETRANT
Pre-mixed penetrant and emulsifier
Easily washed by water rinse
Oily
Penetrant
Emulsifier
+
=
Water
Washable
Penetrant
Water WashablePenetrant
PENETRANT
WATER
SPRAY
Penetrant been washed off
Shallow wide defects
Deep or gross defects
shows
Water Washable Penetrant
ADVANTAGES
Ideal for rough
surfaces
Suitable for batch
testing
Cheaper than other
methods
DISADVANTAGES
Susceptible to over
washing
Least sensitive
method
Requirement for a
water source
Corrosion problems
Solvent Removable
ADVANTAGES
Portability
No water supply
needed
DISADVANTAGES
Not suited to batch
testing
Requires hand wiping
so time consuming
More expensive than
water washable
Potentially hazardous
chemicals
Solvent Removable
Post Emulsifiable Penetrant
Stages
Immerse component in penetrant
Immerse component in emulsifier
Emulsifier diffuses into the penetrant making
it water washable
Water wash removes excess penetrant
mixed with emulsifier
Penetrant in defects left unaffected
Post emulsifiable
Post Emulsifiable
Penetrant
Emulsifier
Now the surface
penetrant is
water washable
Post emulsifiable
Penetrant
Emulsifier
Penetrant mixed with emulsifier
Water
Spray
Penetrant in defect not mixed with emulsifier :
NOT REMOVED
Only penetrant on the surface removed
Post emulsifiable
ADVANTAGES
High Sensitivity
Maximum
penetrating ability
Greater control over
penetrant removal
DISADVANTAGES
Not suitable for
rough surfaces
More expensive
More time
consuming
Developer Sensitivity
Dry powder 100 - 140 %
Aqueous solution 110 - 150 %
Aqueous suspension 120 - 200%
Non-Aqueous 120 - 240%
Penetrant Systems
PENETRANT

Colour
contrast
Fluorescent

Dual

REMOVAL

Solvent

Water
washable

Post
emulsifiable
DEVELOPERS

Dry powder

Aqueous

Non-Aqueous
Selection of System
Nature of discontinuities (size and type)
Geometry and intricacy
Surface condition
Component material
Size and position
Equipment and expertise available
Cost
Number of components to be tested

Selection of System
Inspection of a large number of
threaded components

Fluorescent for mass inspections
Water washable more suited than solvents to
batch inspections
Post emulsifiable difficult to remove from
threads
What method will you select and why ?
Fluorescent water washable with dry
powder developer
Selection of System
Inspection of turbine blades for fatigue
cracks
Fluorescent more sensitive than colour contrast
Post emulsifiable more sensitive than water
washable
Non-aqueous developer most sensitive
What method will you select and why ?
Fluorescent post emulsifiable with non-
aqueous developer
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing of large aircraft components
Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Testing of small components
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing of various small components
Magnetic Particle Testing
Part 2

NDT Training & Certification
Magnetism
The phenomenon of certain materials which attract
certain other materials e.g.. pieces of iron to themselves
N S N S
Test method for the detection of

surface and sub-surface
defects
in ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic Material
Surface Defect
Subsurface
Internal
MT MT
CANNOT BE
DETECTED BY
Magnetic Particle
Testing

Basic Steps
Magnetic field induced
in component
Defects disrupt the
magnetic flux
Defects revealed by
applying
ferromagnetic
particles
Lines of force
By convention they flow from North to
South outside and South to North inside
Form closed loops
Never cross
Field is strongest where most numerous
Follow path of least resistance
N
S
Definitions
Magnetic field : Region in which
magnetic forces
exist

Definitions
Flux : line of magnetic force existing
in a magnetic circuit

Flux Density : Magnetic flux per
unit cross-section area
(measured in Teslas)

Definitions
High Flux Density:
More Flux per unit
area
Low Flux Density: Less
Flux per unit area
Definitions
1 cm
1 cm
1 Tesla = 10 000 gauss
How many line of force are there in an 1 cm area with a
Flux Density of 1 Tesla?
10 000 = 10 lines
BS 6072
The FLUX DENSITY on the surface of the
component must be at lease 0.72 T

Below that the indication will be too
weak
Below 0.72 TESLA Above 0.72 TESLA
AMMETER
0000 0100 0500

In General:
Increasing the Magnetising Force
will increase the Magnetic Field

Measured in Ampere per meter ( A/m)
Permeability
The ease with which a material can be
magnetised

Permeability
A
B
Magnetised using 100 amps Magnetised using 100 amps
High Permeability:
Easy to be magnetised
Low Permeability:
Difficult to be magnetised

Materials Behaviours in
Magnetic Field
Diamagnetic: Slightly repelled by magnetic
field
Examples Gold, Copper, Water and
most non-metal

DIAMAGNETIC

Unable to be Magnetically tested
Paramagnetic: Weakly attracted by magnetic
field
Examples Aluminium, Tungsten and
most metals

PARAMAGNETIC

Unable to be Magnetically tested
Magnetic Field
Ferromagnetic: Strongly attracted by magnetic
field
Examples Iron, Cobalt, Nickel and
their alloys

FERROMAGNETIC
Suitable to be Magnetically tested
Magnetic Field

Permeability
A unit of comparison: compared to
free space

Examples:

Air 1
Iron 560
Steel 1000
Mu Metal 80 000
Paramagnetics Slightly > 1
Diamagnetics Slightly < 1
Ferromagnetics 240 +
Other Forms of Magnet
N S
Horseshoe
Magnet
Ring
Magnet
Equipment
Electromagnetism
A current flows through a conductor and
sets up a magnetic field around it
Field is at 90
o
to the direction of the
electrical current
Direction
of current
flow
Direction of magnetic field
Coil Magnetisation
Changes circular filed into longitudinal
Increases the strength of the field
Coil Magnetisation
Longitudinal Magnetic Field
Detect transverse defects
Principle of MT : Flux Leakage
Ring Magnet Ring Magnet
Magnetic field is Fully
contained: No Poles
Flux Leakage occurs:
Poles created
Flux
Leakage
N
S
Ferromagnetic
Particles
Attracted
at poles
Principle of MPI : Flux
Leakage
N S
No Defect
Defect
The change in permeability causes flux leakage
N S
Flux Leakage
Leakage
N S
No Flux Leakage because No change in
permeability
STEEL = 1000
Leakage
The change in permeability causes flux leakage
Flux Leakage
N
S
STEEL = 1000
AIR = 1
N S
Factors Affecting Flux Leakage
Depth of defect
Orientation of defect shape of defect
Size of defect
Permeability of material
Amount of flux available

Depth below surface
S N
S N
Defect Orientation
Defect at 90 degrees to flux : maximum
indication
Defect Orientation
>45 Degrees to Flux: Acceptable
indication
Defect Orientation
How to detect the ones missed?
All surface defects form indications

But not all indications are
caused by defects
Non-relevant
indications
Due to flux leakage but
arising from design features or
geometry

Changes in section
Changes in
permeability
Furring

Splines
Keyway
Rivet
Toe of welds
Rough
Surface
Chisel
Furring
Furring
Caused by:
Sharp change of contour
Furring
Furring
Furring
Caused by:
Excessive flux on the surface or ends of
component
Furring
Magnetic Writing
Caused by:
Localised polarization when magnetised object
induced the magnetic field into another object
Spurious / False Indications
Indications caused by operator errors
Not due to flux leakage

Lint
Dirt
Hairs

Relevant/ True Indications
Indications caused by defects
Cracks indications by Fluorescent Ink
Inks and Powders
MT Inks
Black and
Fluorescent
MT Powders
Colour
contrast and
Fluorescent
Particles in Inks or Powders
Usage of Fluorescent Ink on weld
Usage of Ultraviolet Light with
Fluorescent Ink in weld testing
Cracks indications by Fluorescent Ink
Usage of a.c. Electromagnetic Yoke with Black Ink
Usage of MT Bench Unit with Fluorescent Ink
Component under test with currentflow and fluorescent ink
Usage of Prods with black ink on weld
An alternating
current is passed
through a coil
An alternating current is
passed through a coil
A.C. generates an
alternating field
Alternating field
generates eddy
currents in conductors
An alternating current is
passed through a coil
A.C. generates an
alternating field
Alternating field
generates eddy
currents in conductors
Eddy currents generate
opposing field which
modifies current in coil
Defects will interrupt the eddy current
Interruption in the coil current is displayed on the set
Equipment
Eddy Current
Electrical currents induced in metals by
alternating magnetic fields
The size of the current is affected by
Electrical conductivity
Stand off distance
Flaws
Permeability
Specimen dimensions
Advantages of ET
Sensitive to surface defects
Can detect through several layers
Can detect through surface coatings
Accurate conductivity measurements
Can be automated
Little pre-cleaning required
Portability
Disadvantages of ET
Very susceptible to permeability changes
Only on conductive materials
Will not detect defects parallel to surface
Not suitable for large areas and/or
complex geometry's
Signal interpretation required
No permanent record (unless automated)
Expensive equipment

Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
High frequency
sound sound waves
are introduced into a
material
Reflected sound
gives information on
the material under
test and signals
displayed on a CRT
Principle
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Sound is transmitted in the material to be tested
The sound reflected back to the
probe is displayed on
the Flaw Detector
The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector
The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance
Bottom / Backwall
Signal from the backwall
The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of
the flaw detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material
The BWE signal
Defect signal
Defect
The depth of the defect can be read with reference
to the marker on the screen
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
60 mm
Thickness / depth measurement
A
A
B
B
C
C
The THINNER the material
the less distance the sound
travel
The closer the reflector
to the surface, the
signal will be more to
the left of the screen
The thickness is read from the screen
68 46 30
Ultrasonic Testing Applications
Probes
Probe Design
Compression Probe
Normal probe
0
Damping
Transducer
Electrical
connectors
Housing
Probe Design
Shear Probe
Angle probe

Damping
Transducer
Perspex wedge
Backing
medium
Probe
Shoe
Probe Design
Twin Crystal
Advantages
Can be focused
Measure thin plate
Near surface
resolution
Disadvantages
Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
Sizing small defects
Signal amplitude /
focal spot length
Transmitter Receiver
Focusing
lens
Separator /
Insulator
Gap Scanning
Probe held a fixed
distance above the
surface (1 or 2mm)
Couplant is fed into
the gap
Immersion Testing
Component is placed
in a water filled tank
Item is scanned with
a probe at a fixed
distance above the
surface
Immersion Testing
Water
path
distance
Water path distance
Front surface Back surface
Defect
AUTOMATIC ULTRASONIC TESTING SYSTEM
C-Scan Presentation

P-Scan Scanner

P-Scan Image Presentation
T-Scan Image Presentation
TOFD Time of Flight Diffraction
TOFD Images
Area Monitoring
May 1999: t
min
= 29.6 mm Dec. 1999: t
min
= 29.6 mm
June 2000: t
min
= 29.4 mm April 2001: t
min
= 29.2 mm
Methods of Setting Sensitivity
Smallest defect at maximum test range
Back wall echo
Disc equivalent
Grass levels
Notches
Side Drilled Holes, DAC Curves

Scanning Procedure
Parent Material
0 degree both sides
To maximum range for angle probes
Full skip distance for 60 or 70 probes
Scanning Procedure
Weld Root
Half skip from both sides
For PCN exams :
70 degree probe at half skip from both sides
Scanning Procedure
Weld Fusion Faces
Half to full skip from both sides
A probe which strikes fusion faces at 90 degrees
Probe angle = 90 - (1/2 Root angle)
Scanning Procedure
Weld Body
Half skip to full skip from both sides

Full Skip 1/2 Skip
Scanning Procedure
Transverse
70 degree
Nozzle Welds
Scanning procedure
Tee butt welds
Pulse Echo Technique
Single probe sends
and receives sound
Gives an indication
of defect depth and
dimensions
Not fail safe
Defect Position
No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)
A
B
B
Through Transmission Technique
Transmitting and
receiving probes
on opposite sides
of the specimen
Tx
Rx
Presence of defect
indicated by
reduction in
transmission signal
No indication of
defect location
Fail safe method
Through Transmission Technique
Advantages
Less attenuation
No probe ringing
No dead zone
Orientation does not
matter
Disadvantages
Defect not located
Defect cant be
identified
Vertical defects dont
show
Must be automated
Need access to both
surfaces
Transmission with Reflection
R
T
Also known as:
Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
Advantages of UT
Sensitive to cracks at various
orientations
Portability
Safety
Able to penetrate thick sections
Measures depth and through wall
extent
Disadvantages
No permanent record (unless automated)
Not easily applied to complex geometries
and rough surfaces.
Unsuited to course grained materials
Requires highly skilled and experienced
technicians

Electromagnetic radiation is imposed
upon a test object
Radiation is transmitted to varying
degrees dependant upon the density of
the material through which it is
travelling
Variations in transmission detected by
photographic film or fluorescent screens
Applicable to metals,non-metals and
composites
Lower
density
Higher
density
Radiation Source
Film
Specimen
Placing Film to be radiographed
Radiation Sources
Isotopes produce Gamma rays
Examples: Co60, Ir192, Yb169
X-Ray Tube
10
-10
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
1cm 10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
Wavelength
Electric
Waves
TV
Microwaves
Infra red Ultra
violet
Industrial
radiography
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
Shortening Wavelength
X-RAY
PRODUCTION
X-Ray Production
-ve +ve
X-RAY
FOCUSING CUP
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
TUNGSTEN
TARGET
CATHODE ANODE
X-RAY PRODUCTION
CATHODE

1. PROCESS THAT MAKE THE
ELECTRON BOILS OUT FROM THE
HOT WIRE IS CALLED THERMIONIC
EMISSION

2. IT IS CONTROLLED BY THE MILIAMP
CONTROL THAT SUPPLY CURRENT
TO THE CATHODE

3. INCREASED THE CURRENT, WILL
INCREASED THE INTENSITY OF THE
ELECTRON STREAM AND HENCE THE
RADIATION

ANODE

1. INCLINED TUNGSTEN TARGET
EMBEDDED IN A LARGE LUMP OF
COPPER

2. USED AS A TARGET FOR THE
ELECTRON TO HIT,AND THE
IMPACT WILL PRODUCE X-RAYS
AND HEAT.

3. VOLTAGE THAT SUPPLY TO THE
ANODE IS CONTROLED BY THE
kV CONTROL.

4. THE HIGHER THE VOLTAGE
ACROSS THE TUBE,THE HIGHER
THE VELOCITY OF THE
ELECTRONS AND THE GREATER
THE PENETRATING POWER
RADIOACTIVE
ISOTOPES
Radioactive isotope
It is small,typically 1mm x 1.5 mm
cylinders,that give off gamma rays
It occurs in nature and also in artificial
isotopes
Artificial isotopes are created by
bombarding an element with an excess of
neutron in the nuclear reactor.
Example of nature isotopes are radium and
uranium
Example of artificial isotopes are iridium
192 and cobalt 60

MEASUREMENT OF
RADIOACTIVITY
THE BASIC UNIT IS CURIE
IN SI UNIT, IT IS MEASURED IN
BECQUEREL
1 CURIE = 3.7 X 10
10
BECQUERELS
HALF LIFE OF AN ISOTOPE IS THE
TIME IT TAKES FOR 1/2 OF THE ATOMS
TO DECAY
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

IT HAS TWO TYPES
SLOW FILM
- FINE GRAIN AND NEED MORE EXPOSURE
FAST FILM
- LARGE GRAINS AND NEED LESS EXPOSURE

KNOWLEDGE OF FILM CAN HELPS THE
RADIOGRAPHER TO WORK OUT EXPOSURES WHEN
CHANGING FILM BRANDS. E.G IN TABLE 5.3

FILM ALSO SHOULD BE STORED IN EDGES, IN COOL
DRY CONDITIONS AND AWAY FROM CHEMICALS OR
RADIATION

THREE LAYERS
PROTECTIVE LAYER
LAYER OF GELATIN PROTECTS THE
EMULSION LAYER FROM
SCRACTHES
EMULSION LAYER
SUSPENDED IN IT THE SILVER
BROMIDE..
TRANSPARENT POLYSESTER
BASE OF RADIOGRAPHY
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
EXPOSED
SILVER BROMIDE WILL
BE EXPOSED
THE IMAGE IS LATENT
AND NO VISIBLE CHANGE
IN FILM .IT WOULD BE
NOTICEABLE UNTIL
DEVELOPMENT

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
r

S
t
o
p

b
a
t
h

Running water
MANUAL SYSTERM
PROCESSING FILM
Radiographic Image
Techniques
Panoramic
Single Wall Single Image
Double Wall Double Image
Gamma Rays vs. X-Rays
Safety
X-ray machines is normally safer: can be switched off/on
Gamma source: constant emission
Capabilities
Gamma source have very high penetrating power
X-ray: intensity and wavelength can be adjusted
Quality of images
In general: x-ray produces better quality
Handling
Gamma sources are easier to handle
X-ray machine are bulky, fragile and requires electricity
Cost
Gamma source are cheaper

Radiographic Variables
Density
The degree of film darkness
Contrast
The differences in density between the
regions of the film
Advantages of Radiography
Permanent record
Detection of Internal flaws
Can be used on most materials
Direct image of flaws
Real - time imaging
Disadvantages of Radiography
Health hazard
Sensitive to defect
orientation
Limited ability to detect fine
cracks
Access to both sides
required
Limited by material
thickness
Skilled interpretation
required
Relatively slow
High capital outlay and
running costs
Acoustic Emission
Transient stress waves from micro
structural changes detected by sensors
Stress waves
Stress
Vacuum created within a perspex box
Soapy liquid applied to surface
Vacuum Box Testing
Vacuum Box Testing
Bubbles indicate through thickness
defect
Vacuum created within a perspex box
Soapy liquid applied to surface
Any Questions Please ?
Training & Certification
Training & Certification

NDT Appreciation

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Name Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Inspection and Testing

Research and Development

Training and Certification

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