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Bio-energy:

Systems sustainability assessment
Prof Alan Brent

Tel: +27 21 808 9530
Fax: +27 21 808 4245
Cell: +27 82 468 5110
E-mail: acb@sun.ac.za
Web: http://www.crses.sun.ac.za
http://www.sustainabilityinstitute.net
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Internal combustion engine Electric engine
Vehicle wheels driven Crude oil product replaced
Gasoline Diesel
Purification &
Compression
Natural gas
Coal
Biomass
Solar energy source
Bio-oil
Sugar, starch Cellulosic
Nuclear energy source
Fuel cell Battery
Crude oil
LPG
Fermentation
Esterification
Gasification
Synthesis
Combustion
Electricity
Hydrolysis
Ethanol
Hydrogen
Biogas
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4
Current perspectives - UNEP International Panel for
Sustainable Resource Management
Biofuels have attracted growing attention of policy, industry and
research. The number of scientific publications devoted to biofuels
is growing exponentially, and the number of reviews is increasing
rapidly. For decision makers it has become a hard job to find robust
reference material and solid guidance. Uncertainty on the overall
assessment has been growing with the findings of the possible
benefits and risks of biofuels.

.. progress requires an advanced approach which goes beyond
the production and use of biofuels, and considers all competing
applications of biomass, including food, fibres and fuels. A widened
systems perspective is adopted.

5
Current perspectives - UNEP International Panel for
Sustainable Resource Management
Biofuels have attracted growing attention of policy, industry and
research. The number of scientific publications devoted to biofuels
is growing exponentially, and the number of reviews is increasing
rapidly. For decision makers it has become a hard job to find robust
reference material and solid guidance. Uncertainty on the overall
assessment has been growing with the findings of the possible
benefits and risks of biofuels.

.. progress requires an advanced approach which goes beyond
the production and use of biofuels, and considers all competing
applications of biomass, including food, fibres and fuels. A widened
systems perspective is adopted.

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Biofuel production
(2000 to 2013)
Wood pellet production
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International trade
(biodiesel in 2007)
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Biofuels: there are more than 2!
Fuel ethanol & FAME biodiesel
Also 1
st
generation:
Biogas, charcoal, ethanol gel
2
nd
generation:
Cellulosic ethanol, algal biodiesel
Methanol, butanol, DME
BtL fuels, hydrogen
3
rd
generation
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Types of biofuels
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Types of biofuels
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Types of biofuels
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Two phases of the (bioenergy) technology life-cycle
Idea generation
Pre-feasibility /
Feasibility
Study
Development
Piloting
Hardware / Business
Design
Implementation
Operation
Product
Phase out
Market
uptake
A
s
s
e
s
s
m
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n
t

R&D
gate
R&D
gate
R&D
gate
R&D
gate
Business
gate
Business
gate
Business
gate
R
e
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e
a
r
c
h

S
c
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I
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a

Technology
Assessment
Technology
Transfer
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Wider than conventional biofuels life cycles
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The bioenergy value chain
Bioenergy market /
end-user
Bioenergy
distribution
Bioenergy
transformation
Bioenergy
conversion
Feedstock
processing
Feedstock
production
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Feedstock production
Biomass/energy
feedstock
External economic
inputs
Fertiliser
Pesticide
Mechanical interventions
Natural resources
land
Soil availability
Soil potential
External social
inputs
Manual labour
Mechanical labour
Natural resources
water
Rain
Irrigation
External institutional
inputs
Subsidies
Policies
Natural resources
sunlight / air
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Feedstock processing
Biomass/energy
feedstock
Processed
feedstock
Handling
Drying
Milling
Dehusking
Harvesting
Collection
Transportation
Storage
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Bioenergy conversion
Processed
feedstock
Transportation to conversion facility
Mechanical
conversion
Thermal
conversion
Biological
conversion
Vegetable oil
Biogas
Bioethanol
Heat
Fuel gas
Bio-oil
Char Pyrolysis
Gasification
Combustion
Digestion
Fermentation
Mechanical
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Bioenergy transformation
Heat
Char
Boiler
Co-firing
Engine
Turbine
Conversion
Fuel cell
Synthesis
Heat
Electricity
Transport fuels
Fertilisers
Chemicals
Charcoal
Bio-oil
Fuel gas
Vegetable oil
Biogas
Bioethanol
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Bioenergy distribution to market
Heat
Electricity
Transport fuels
Fertilisers
Chemicals
Charcoal
Household use
Motor vehicles
Cleaning products
Agricultural products
Industrial use
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Complex interaction of techno-economic system with other
systems (spatial scale)
Bioenergy market /
end-user
Bioenergy
distribution
Bioenergy
transformation
Bioenergy
conversion
Feedstock
processing
Feedstock
production
Bioenergy market /
end-user
Bioenergy
distribution
Bioenergy
transformation
Bioenergy
conversion
Feedstock
processing
Feedstock
production
Energy
Water
Other resources
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The technological system is embedded
Technology
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Complex interaction of techno-economic system with other
systems (temporal scale)
Bioenergy market /
end-user
Bioenergy
distribution
Bioenergy
transformation
Bioenergy
conversion
Feedstock
processing
Feedstock
production
Bioenergy market /
end-user
Bioenergy
distribution
Bioenergy
transformation
Bioenergy
conversion
Feedstock
processing
Feedstock
production
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Relationship of different life cycles
Project / technology development life cycles drivers of change



Asset life cycles optimise internal operations



Product life cycles profit generation of operations
Pre-feasibility Feasibility Development Executing &
testing
Project
launch & PIR
Pre-
manufacture
Operation &
manufacture
Product
usage
Product
disposal
Detailed
design
Commission Operation &
Maintenance
De-
commission
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Detailed
design
Commission Operation &
Maintenance
De-
commission
Pre-
feasibility
Feasibility Develop Execute &
testing
Launch
Product
usage
Product
disposal
Pre-
manufacture
Project life cycle
Product life cycle
Asset
life cycle
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Classification of bioenergy projects matrix
Scale of the project
Rural electrification
Local biogas provision
Ethanol gel production
Mine providing own
power
Outgrower schemes
Providing large refineries
Bothaville bioethanol
Brazil/USA bioethanol
D1 Jatropha
Cogen
Small growers (1 to 10s ha)
Commercial farms (100s to 1000s ha)
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Cell A Cell B
Cell C Cell D
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Cell A: Small growers /
Local sustainability
India example of rural electrification project
Video

African examples of local biofuel/gas provision
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Cell B: Commercial farms /
Local sustainability
Ethanol gel production
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Cell B: Commercial farms /
Local sustainability
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Cell C: Small growers /
Provision of outside market
Outgrower schemes
Providing large refineries
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Cell D: Commercial farms /
Provision of outside market
Brazil/ USA and other bioethanol programmes
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Cell D: Commercial farms /
Provision of outside market
Electricity cogeneration
33
Current perspectives - UNEP International Panel for
Sustainable Resource Management
Biofuels have attracted growing attention of policy, industry and
research. The number of scientific publications devoted to biofuels
is growing exponentially, and the number of reviews is increasing
rapidly. For decision makers it has become a hard job to find robust
reference material and solid guidance. Uncertainty on the overall
assessment has been growing with the findings of the possible
benefits and risks of biofuels.

.. progress requires an advanced approach which goes beyond
the production and use of biofuels, and considers all competing
applications of biomass, including food, fibres and fuels. A widened
systems perspective is adopted.

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The biomass utilisation network superstructure
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Decisions to be made
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Sustainability management tools
Acronyms
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)
Environmental Accounting
Life cycle tools
Life Cycle Costing (LCC) and Life Cycle Management (LCM)
Life Cycle Assessment or Analysis (LCA)
Life Cycle Engineering (LCE)
Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA)
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Social Impact Assessment (SIA)
Environmental Audititing (EA)
Environmental Labelling (EL)
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Incorporating the tools in the life cycle of a typical internal
project
Phaseout &
Disposal/
Recycling
Conceptual
design
Preliminary
& Detailed
Design &
Development
Life cycle thinking focussed on the project
Operational
Use & System
Support
Production
&
Construction
Integrated Environmental Management
Environmental Management System
Environmental Auditing
1, 2 5, 6
3, 4
2
7
2
1: Life cycle Costing
2: Environmental Risk Assessment
3: Life Cycle Assessment
4: Life Cycle Engineering
5: Environmental Impact Assessment
6: Social Impact Assessment
7: Environmental Labelling
Strategic Environmental Assessment
Environmental accounting
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Goals of Life Cycle Engineering
Life Cycle Assessment
Goal
Environmental
Decision
support
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Evaluating the life cycle of a product or process system
Life cycle
phases
Impact
analyses
Life cycle
steps
Life cycle
inventory
Output
Input
Output
Input
Output
Input
Output
Input
Output
Input
Environmental aspects Economic aspects
Emissions Waste
Resources
Production
of inter-
mediates
Production
of main
product
Raw
material
extraction

Utilisation
Recycling,
recovery,
deposition
End-of-life
phase
Use phase Production phase
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Life cycle stages of a typical product
Raw material
acquisition
Material
manufacture
Product
manufacture
Product
use
Product
disposal
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Energy
Raw
materials
Waste
Emissions
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Four stages of a LCA for a product
Define
Scope
Inventory
Analysis
Impact
Analysis
Improvement
Analysis
R
ERP

Manufacture
1 2 3
4
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Main asset and liability of a traditional LCA
Asset: Quantitatively assess a range of environmental impacts
attributable to a specific product.
Liability: Subjective basis or usage of subjective data, gives
subjective results for routine analyses of products due to:
Limitations in the data collection and analysis of the inventory stage.
Variations in the temporal scale, spatial scale and locale, and
assignment procedure of values to different environmental impacts.

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Application of the LCE approach for different management
requirements
Product
Asset
Maintenance
Project
Investment
Waste
X Life Cycle Management
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Wood residues
Woody biomass crops
Sugar crops
Bio-oils
Fuel
gas
gasification
Heat
methane
Animal manures
Organic wastes
Green crops
Anaerobic
digestion
Gasoline
Methanol
Diesel
Ligno-cellulose
Flash
pyrolysis
Steam
explosion
Direct combustion
steam
Electricity
Pre-hydrolysis
+ Hydrolysis
(acid /enzyme)
Fermentation/
Distillation
Ethanol
Oil crops Transesterification
Biofuels as part of the bioenergy picture
(Sims)
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Background to the (ecological) sustainability analysis of
biofuel systems
An evolving story
In 2005, more than 400 published LCAs
On biodiesel (soybean, rapeseed)
Fuel ethanol (from cane, maize, grapes)
Export of electricity from processing plant
Reviews attempting to consolidate
For example, Quirin et al., 2005; von Blottnitz & Curran, 2007
2008: Systematic accounting errors!
Fargione et al., Searchinger et al., both in Science

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Careful with comparisons!











But more km/GJ for diesel than for gasoline!
Such a comparison says nothing about co-products
Fuel crops l/ha GJ fuel/ha
Soybean 296 9.9
Sunflower 363 12.1
Canola 523 17.4
Jatropha 1364 45.4
Maize 1092 23.0
Sugar cane 4469 94.2
Cassava 8333 175.6
Sweet sorghum 1152 24.3
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The bioenergy life cycle
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Environmental sustainability concerns needing
investigation
Energy balance
Carbon benefits
Water requirements
Impacts of processing
Poor results for nitrous oxide emissions
Kaltschmitt et al, 1996; Sheehan et al., 1998

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The potential of bio-ethanol to reduce dependence on
conventional fossil fuels
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Reported issues
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Reported issues
These LCAs typically report that bio-ethanol results in reductions in
resource use and global warming; however, impacts on acidification,
human toxicity and ecological toxicity, occurring mainly during the
growing and processing of biomass, were more often unfavourable than
favourable. It is in this area that further work is needed.
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Reported issues
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Reported issues
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Reported issues
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Rainfall patterns in South Africa
(FAO, 2005)
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Social benefits and risk of biofuels
Competition for land with food & fibre production
Who benefits from increased/redirected fuel spend to agriculture?
Established farmers and agribusiness, or/and the rural poor, landless
people, successful land claimants etc.?
Should the poor grow low-value energy crops?
Energisation benefits
Especially on waste-based biofuels
Crude oil reserves extended
Intergenerational benefit

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Sustainable development needs for
developed vs. developing countries
For developed countries
(OECD, 2003)
For lower to upper middle income countries
(World Bank, 2002)
For low to middle income countries
(UN CSD, 2006)

For four sub-systems
Economic
Environmental
Social
Institutional


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Sustainable development needs in the context of
developing countries
Millennium Development Goals (UN, 2005)
Targeted at halving the numbers of impoverished populations in all
developing countries



Challenge is to energise the MDGs (UNDP, 2007)
Access to energy (for the poor)
Provision of health care
Provision of nutrition
Etc.


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Supporting policy / strategy context
South African National R&D Strategy (DST, 2002)

For sustainable development to take place, rural and urban communities
should have access to innovations that accelerate development and
provide new and effective solutions compared to those utilised
previously


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Supporting policy / strategy context
South African Energy R&D strategy (DST and DME, 2006)

The challenge is to develop fully the available energy resources and to
promote innovative, competitive, equitable and sustainable energy
systems for various economic and social sectors across South Africa
and the continent
Also supports the objectives of NEPAD (2005)


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Supporting policy / strategy context
South African Biofuels Industrial Strategy (DME, 2007 & 2013)

The aim is to achieve a biofuels average market penetration of 2% of
liquid road transport fuels, i.e. petrol and diesel
Exploit the biomass resources potential of the country
Mandatory blending has been gazetted in 2012

The biofuels target will contribute up to 50% of the national renewable
energy target of 10 000 GWh (DME, 2003)

Solutions to sustainability problems may be achieved through the use of
new technology that reduces pollution and, in some instances, provides
development opportunities
Require dynamic policy instruments and incentives that proactively create
the necessary conducive environment for the new technologies envisaged

Current projects in South Africa
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Recent market developments
Exporting / importing biofuels
Developing country resources push to developed country pull

Government subsidies
Renewable Energy Finance and Subsidy Office (REFSO) of DME which
can provide capital subsidies for entrepreneurs intending to provide
renewable energy services
UNEP/GEF Cogeneration for Africa project based in Nairobi which can
provide technical assistance to investors intending to go into
cogeneration

International financial incentives
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
Of the Kyoto Protocol
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Multiple purpose / goals of bioenergy
Utilise existing natural (renewable) resources
Whilst maintaining social / cultural beneficiation of the resources

Stimulate socio-economic growth / development
Across different communities / parts of society

Address local / basic energy needs
Directly or indirectly through economic empowerment

React to market needs
National and international

Multiple
conflicts?
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Sustainability vision for bioenergy
(for further discussion on Friday)
In the context of existing policies and strategies
In the context of this R&D effort


Identify, implement and support a balanced portfolio of bioenergy
options, at national, provincial, and municipal levels, that result in
localised social-ecological advantages that outweigh micro-, meso-
and macro disadvantages
66
Why sustainability for business management?
Development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs
1

Adopting business strategies and activities
that meet the needs of the business and its
stakeholders today while protecting, sustaining
and enhancing the human and natural
resources that will be needed in the future
2

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Business management
incorporation
Economic
considerations
Social
considerations
Environmental
considerations
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Future trends in the responsibility of industry
Today
Industry's
Responsibility
Tomorrow
Yesterday
Product
Manufacturing
Product
Use
Product
Retirement
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Present Challenges:

Product
Take Back
Regulations,
Recycling,
Work place
Future Challenges:

Life Cycle
Assessment
Obligations,
Recyclability (waste)
and
Climate Protection
Declarations
Work place (new age)
68
Drivers for the incorporation of sustainability in business
practices Sasol
To incorporate
Sustainability/
Align processes to principles of
Sustainable Development
Pressure
License to Operate
Introduction of sustainable development
into government policies
Civil society expectations
Push
License to Exist
Investors looking for
evidence of good
corporate governance and
effective management of
risk (e.g. Dow Jones SI)
Employees
License to Sell
Pull
International trade
agreements
Customers expecting
proof
Support
Responsible Care Principles
Sound Corporate Governance
To incorporate
Sustainability/
Align processes to principles of
Sustainable Development
Pressure
License to Operate
Introduction of sustainable development
into government policies
Civil society expectations
Push
License to Exist
Investors looking for
evidence of good
corporate governance and
effective management of
risk (e.g. Dow Jones SI)
Employees
License to Sell
Pull
International trade
agreements
Customers expecting
proof
Support
Responsible Care Principles
Sound Corporate Governance
69
A framework of sustainable development criteria from an
industry perspective
Corporate Responsible Strategy
Operational initiatives Social initiatives
Environment Social Economic
External
population
Stakeholder
participation
Macro social
performance
Internal human
resources
Natural air
resources
Natural land
resources
Mined abiotic
resources
Natural water
resources
Economic
performance
Potential
financial benefit
Trading
opportunities
Internal
financial health
70
Sub-criteria of social sustainability
External
population
Stakeholder
participation
Macro social
performance
Internal human
resources
Employment
stability
Employment
practices
Health and
safety
Capacity
development
External human
capital
Productive
capital
Community
capital
Information
provision
Stakeholder
influence
Socio-
economic
Socio-
environmental
Social
sustainability
71
Detailed
design
Commission Operation &
Maintenance
De-
commission
Pre-
feasibility
Feasibility Develop Execute &
testing
Launch
Product
usage
Product
disposal
Pre-
manufacture
Project life cycle
Product life cycle
Asset
life cycle
72
WWF 2006
UNEP 2009
73
Life-cycle-wide environmental impacts of biofuels
74
Land use, land availability, and land-use conflicts
Clarification of land ownership
Land ownership should be equitable, and land-tenure conflicts should be
avoided. This requires clearly defined, documented and legally established
tenure use rights. To avoid leakage effects, poor people should not be
excluded from the land. Customary land-use rights and disputes should be
identified. A conflict register might be useful in this context.
75
Land use, land availability, and land-use conflicts
Avoiding negative impacts from bioenergy-driven changes in land
use
If land-use policies and their implementation in a given country or region
are effective in preventing negative impacts from land-use changes, then
bioenergy development should be concentrated on available arable land.

If a country or region has ineffective (or no) land-use policies, negative
impacts of shifts in land-use due to bioenergy development are possible,
and bioenergy crop development must be restricted to areas that are not in
competition with other uses.
76
Land use, land availability, and land-use conflicts
Priority for food supply and food security
Food security is a basic human need which should not be compromised by
bioenergy development, i.e. cultivating energy crops to the disadvantage of
food crops should be avoided.

Decisions on bioenergy production nevertheless have regional impacts,
with the result that a regional risk assessment is needed which analyzes
the potential impact of biomass production on the local and regional food
supply.
77
Loss of biodiversity and deforestation
No additional negative biodiversity impacts
Areas to be protected:
High-nature-value areas (e.g. intact close-to-nature ecosystems, natural
habitats, primary and virgin forests), land needed to maintain critical
population levels of species in natural surroundings, and relevant
migration corridors must be excluded from bioenergy cropping areas.
Adequate buffer zones must be maintained for habitats of rare, threatened
or endangered species, as well as for land adjacent to areas needing
protection.
78
Loss of biodiversity and deforestation
No additional negative biodiversity impacts
Production practices:
Management plans and farming operations must ensure the protection of
high-nature-value farming systems (e.g. on grass land or small patterned
traditional farming systems) as well as nature-oriented forestry.
To preserve genetic diversity, a minimum number of crop species and
varieties, as well as structural diversity within the bioenergy cropping
area must be demonstrated in management plans.
As a precautionary measure, the use of genetically modified organisms
(GMO) as bioenergy crops should be excluded, since they could have
adverse environmental impacts.
Appropriate fire-protection strategies are needed, and the use of fire to
clear or prepare land for production should only be permitted if it is
known to be the preferred ecological option.
Alien species should only be cultivated under conditions of careful
control and monitoring; effects on wildlife species should be blocked.
79
Greenhouse-gas emissions
Minimization of greenhouse-gas emissions
A maximum life-cycle GHG balance of bioenergy cultivation of 30 kg/GJ
must be demonstrated. This limit represents a 67% reduction on the life-
cycle GHG emissions from (unprocessed) crude-oil combustion.
The processing of bioenergy crops especially to biofuels must
demonstrate a minimum conversion efficiency of 67%, taking into
account by-products for which proof of use must be given. A maximum
direct GHG emission factor of 60 kg/GJ input should apply for the
process energy.
On the other hand, a simplified approach to GHG accounting should be
developed for the small-scale farming of bioenergy crops using rural-
systems to avoid excessive compliance costs.
80
Greenhouse-gas emissions savings of biofuels compared
to fossil fuels
81
Soil erosion and other forms of soil degradation
Minimization of soil erosion and degradation
The exclusion (or significant restriction) of bioenergy crops requiring
intense tilling and below-surface harvesting (e.g. sugar beets);
Maximum (soil-specific) slope limits for bioenergy crop cultivation;
Maximum extraction rates for agricultural and forestry residues (specific
for soil and crop/crop rotation).
Acceptable removal levels for agro- and forestry residues, so that humus
and organic C soil content is not negatively affected.
Use of farming and harvesting practices that reduce erosion risks and
adverse soil compaction (irrigation schemes, harvesting equipment).
Irrigation schemes to prevent salinization.
Exclusion of crops and cropping systems for which such schemes are
not applicable (specific to soil type and semi-dry/dry regions).
A qualitative standard on the toxicity and biodegradability of
agrochemicals is needed (e.g. a positive list of chemicals and user
guidelines)
Non-chemical pest treatment and organic fertilizers are preferred.
82
Water use and water contamination
Minimization of water use and avoidance of water contamination
Optimized farming systems requiring low water input should be used, e.g.
agro-forestry systems in dry regions.
Critical irrigation needs in semi-dry and dry regions should be avoided by
applying water management plans (long-term strategies and
implementation program) providing a sustainable and efficient water
supply for irrigation.
The quality and availability of surface and ground water must be
maintained, avoiding the negative impacts of agrochemical use (by timing
and quantity of application).
No untreated sewage water for irrigation.
Re-use of treated waste-water must be part of the agricultural
management system.
83
Air pollution
Carefully consider other pollutants
84
Results of a Swiss LCA
85
LCA methodological issues
86
Socio-economic problems and standards
Improvement of labour conditions and worker rights
The supply systems for bioenergy i.e. the cultivation of bioenergy crops,
the collection of biogenic residues and wastes and their respective
downstream processing must comply with ILO standards on
workers safety, workers rights, wage policies, child labor, seasonal
workers conditions, and working hours during harvest time.
87
Socio-economic problems and standards
Ensuring a share of proceeds
A standard on income distribution and poverty-reduction issues (share of
proceeds) seems necessary, although this can only be discussed in
detail with respect to regional and local conditions and project specifics.
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Decision-tree
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Sustainable Development Planning and Management:
Renewable Energy Policy Lecture 5

Discussion