INTRODUCTION

The Study of Logic

DEFINITION
Derived from the Greek word logos
which means - study, reason or
discourse

LOGIC is the science and art of correct
thinking

- it is a SCIENCE because it is a
systematized body of logical truths and
principles governing correct thinking


- as an ART, logic is a techne
and it teaches how to make a good
argument
- often called the arts of arts
because it develops and perfects the
intellect which all artists need in their
work


LOGIC AND CORRECT THINKING
It is correct when it conforms to a
pattern or to rules
Example: A ruler is 12-inch long
Pres. GMA is a ruler
Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch
long
-THINKING is a mental process involves
analysis, definition, classification,
comparison and contrasts, etc.
- It guides or directs man to form correct
ideas

BRANCHES OF LOGIC
FORMAL LOGIC
-concerned with the aspect of form which
has something to do with the correctness
or sequence or the following of rules
Ex. All men are mortal
but Pedro is a man
therefore Pedro is mortal
BRANCHES OF LOGIC
MATERIAL LOGIC
-concerned with the aspect of subject matter
or content or truth of the argument
Example: A ruler is 12-inch long
Pres. GMA is a ruler
Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch
long
KINDS
- Deductive Logic: from more to less
- Inductive Logic: implies a sense of
probability
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
The three essential operations of the intellect
Mental Operations Products External Signs
1. SIMPLE
APPREHENSION
CONCEPT ORAL AND WRITTEN
TERMS
2. JUDGMENT MENTAL
PROPOSITION
ORAL AND WRITTEN
PROPOSITIONS
3. REASONING MENTAL
AGREEMENT
OR
DISAGREEMEN
T
ORAL AND WRITTEN
ARGUMENTS
CONCEPT
The representation of an object by the
intellect through which man understands
or comprehends a thing
It is an idea- starts with an outside
reality and apprehended by the senses
KINDS OF CONCEPT
1.First Intention: we understand what the
thing is according to what it is in reality
Ex. A dog is an animal.
Second Intention: we understand not only
what the thing is according to what it is
in reality but also how it is in the mind
Ex. Monte Vista (Mountain View) is the
name of my subdivision
KINDS OF CONCEPT
2.Concrete Concepts: expresses a form
and a subject
Ex. The flower rose
Abstract Concepts: has a form only ,
has intangible quality, that which cannot
be perceived by the senses
Ex. Beauty in a woman
KINDS OF CONCEPT
3.Absolute Concepts: signifies the meaning
of a concept, all definitions are absolute
concepts
Ex. A triangle is a three-sided figure.
Connotative Concepts: signifies a
characteristic existing in the concept, all
modifiers are connotative concepts
Ex. Drummer boy
KINDS OF CONCEPT
4.Positive Concepts: signifies the existence
or possession of something
Ex. happy
Negative Concepts: signifies the absence
of something
Ex. sad
SEATWORK #2
Underline the simple subject of each
proposition then classify according to the
four kinds of concepts in the column
below:
1. Justice is a prerequisite of love.
2. Men are creatures of God.
3. Freedom is the name of our park.
4. Honesty is still the best policy.
5. Joy is Zenys friend.
Concept I or II C or A A or C P or N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ASSIGNMENT #2
Underline the simple subject of each
proposition then classify according to the
four kinds of concepts in the column
below:
1. Love is a many-splendored thing.
2. Love is the theme of the homily.
3. The loving couple is a model to their
children.
4. Hope is the opposite of despair.
5. Hope is the street where I live.
6. The urban poor are people in need of
hope.
THE TERM
The external representation of a concept
and the ultimate structural element of a
proposition.

- external representation means it is
always a sign of a concept or an idea
- ultimate structural element means it
could either be the subject or predicate of
a proposition
THE TERM
EXAMPLE:

Hilda is a (nun).
subject predicat
e
PROPERTIES OF A TERM
EXTENSION OF A TERM
- the sum total of the particulars to which
the comprehension of a concept can be
applied
- The denotation of a term
- The terms that are members of the
domain of the concept



PROPERTIES OF A TERM
COMPREHENSION OF A TERM
- the sum total of all notes which constitute
the meaning of a concept
- set of traits or characteristics that
differentiates the term in a group
- the connotation of a term



PROPERTIES OF A TERM
Example is the term BAT
-for its extension it will include all animals,
regardless of size, shape, colour, or
breeding
-further analysis (comprehension), know
the nature of bats how?
- You must try to state the trait or set of
traits and characteristics that
differentiates bats from the rest of the
animal kingdom


PROPERTIES OF A TERM
Example is the term BAT
-the important common trait of bats is: they
are the only mammals capable of
sustained flight like a bird

- Unlike birds, bats are able to fly at low
speed with extreme maneuverability.
RELATIONSHIP
Comprehension and Extension are related
to each other inversely
Meaning: the greater the comprehension
of a term, the lesser its extension and vice
versa
- the arrangement of the characteristics
from general to specific
Ex. city, barangay, province, municipality,
region, country , sitio
SEATWORK#3
Arrange the ff. from greater
comprehensiont o lesser extension
1. Pedro, Filipino, Man, Asian, Brown Race
2. Square, Plane, Figure, Rectangle,
Polygon, Parallelogram, shape
ANSWER TO SW#3
1. Man 2. Plane
Asian Figure
Brown Race Shape
Filipino Polygon
Pedro Parallelogram
Rectangle
Square
QUANTITIES OF TERMS
1. SINGULAR it stands for a single
definite individual or group
- Proper nouns ex. Raul, La Union,
DMMMSU
- Nouns modified by adjective to the
superlative degree ex. most charming
- Demonstratives ex. this book, that door
- Collective nouns ex. flock, class
- The article the ex. The man in blue
shorts
- Personal pronouns I, you, he, she, we,
they, my, your, our
QUANTITIES OF TERMS
2. PARTICULAR - it stands for an indefinite
subject
- Indefinite pronouns and adjectives
ex. Some, several, many, few
- Use of numbers ex. Seven tickets
- Use of article a and an
- General propositions: which are true
most of the time but not all the time
ex. Filipinos are hospitable

QUANTITIES OF TERMS
3. UNIVERSAL it stands for every subject
signified
- Universal expressions ex. All, every,
each, whatever, whoever, whichever,
without exception, everything
- Universal ideas
Ex. Men are mortal
- The use of articles the, a, an if the
idea is universal
Ex. The snake is a dangerous creature.
SEATWORK #4
Underline each simple subject and classify its
quantity: S for singular, P for particular, and U for
universal
1. I am a violinists daughter.
2. All the children are musicians.
3. Six of them are a string ensemble.
4. A brother is a trombone player.
5. Some bands are their competitors during the
town fiesta.
6. A square is a geometric figure with four equal
sides.
7. Two parallel lines will not meet.
8. You should practice what you preach.
9. That girl beside me is wearing a red dress.
10. The weather is warm.



KINDS OF TERMS
1. UNIVOCAL if they mean exactly the
same thing in the last two occurrences
Ex. Man is rational.
Get that man!
2. EQUIVOCAL if they have different
meanings in at least two occurrences
Ex. Man the lifeboat!
The son of man
KINDS OF TERMS
3. ANALOGOUS if they have partly the
same and partly different meanings in at
least two occurrences
KINDS:
1. Intrinsic analogy: used in technical
terms and as definitions
2. Extrinsic analogy: used as a
metaphor
Ex. The heart of the forest

KINDS OF TERMS
KINDS:
3. Analogy of Proportionality: when the
terms use are similar
Ex. The stepmother is cruel.
The sea is cruel.
4.Analogy of Attribution: attribute the
term to its denotation
Ex. I am drinking Coke.

SEATWORK #5
Classify the underlined terms- write U for
Univocal, E for Equivocal, IA for Intrinsic
Analogy, EA for Extrinsic analogy, AP for
for Analogy of Proportionality, AA for
Analogy of Attribution.
1. I am reading Rizal.
2. Gold is a precious metal. Lydia de Vega
received a gold for 100m. Dash.
3. Politicians speaks of leveling the Smokey
Mountain. Geneva Cruz is a member of the
Smokey Mountain.
4. Gonzaga is a tenor. Cabahug is a tenor.
5. I am using Colgate.





SEATWORK #5
Classify the underlined terms- write U for
Univocal, E for Equivocal, IA for Intrinsic
Analogy, EA for Extrinsic analogy, AP for
Analogy of Proportionality, AA for Analogy
of Attribution.
6. Father Sales and my father are friends.
7. The smiling sun is so brilliant.
8. The mouth of the river is clean.
9. We pass by Bridals Veil along Kennon
Road
10. Hitler is a man.
Marcos is a man.





SUPPOSITION OF TERMS
It is functional the way it is meant in the
proposition
Examples:
1. A square is a rectangle with four equal
sides.
2. Square has six letters
3. Square is the subject the sentence
4. A black-rimmed square clock is classy in my
living room.
KINDS OF SUPPOSITION
1. MATERIAL SUPPOSITION: is that which
uses a word for itself alone, for its spoken or
written sign, not for its real meaning
Examples: #2 and 3
2. FORMAL SUPPOSITION: is that which
uses a word for its real meaning
Example: #1
OTHER KINDS
A] LOGICAL SUPPOSITION: is that which
uses a word for its second intention; that is
the way the mind thinks it to be
Example: #4
B] REAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a
word in its first intention
Example: #1
UNDER REAL SUPPOSITION:
1] Absolute Supposition: is that which uses a
word for essence, but without excluding
existing reality
Example: Proposition #1
Personal Supposition: is that which uses a
word for the subject containing the essence
signified by the word
Example: Proposition #4
2. Essential Supposition: is that which uses a
word for qualities necessary to the subject
Example: #1

Accidental Supposition: is that which uses
a word for qualities not actually necessary
to the subject
Example: #4
SEATWORK#6
Give the specific kind of supposition illustrated
by
the words carabao and pag-asa in each
proposition below.
1. Tamarao belongs to the endangered
species.
2. Tamarao is a word with three syllables.
3. Pag-asa is the name of the eaglet.
4. Pag-asa is the subject of the sentence.
5. Pag-asa means hope in English.
6. Pag-asa is now the adopted child of bird
lovers.
OTHER TYPES
- IMAGINARY SUPPOSITION: exists as a
product of imagination
Ex. Fictional character
- METAPHORICAL SUPPOSITION: term is
used as a figure of speech
Ex. The smiling sun
- SYMBOLIC SUPPOSITION: signifies a
group of men
Ex. L.A. Lakers
THE PROPOSITION
- A special type of sentence
- An enunciation of truth or falsity
- Verbal expression of mental judgment


STRUCTURAL ELEMENT
S C P

[subject]- [copula]- [predicate]
- Subject stands for the thing signified, the one
spoken of
- Predicate stands for what is affirmed or
denied of the subject
- copula- links the subject and the predicate
- * acceptable only is the present tense
is or is not

EXAMPLE
All boys (are) future men.


Quantifier subject[S] copula[C] predicate[P]
LOGICAL SYMBOL
[FOUR STANDARD PROPOSITIONS]
QUANTITY QUALITY
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE

UNIVERSA
L,
SINGULAR

A
Every S is P.

E
No S is P.

PARTICUL
AR

I
Some S is P.

O
Some S is not
P.
EXAMPLES
A - Every monkey is an animal.
E - No monkey is a human.
I - Some monkeys are brown.
O - Some monkeys are not brown.
LOGICAL DIAGRAM
A PROPOSITION

PREDICA
TE
SUBJE
CT
E PROPOSITION
SUBJE
CT
PREDICAT
E
I PROPOSITION

SUBJEC
T
PREDICAT
E
O PROPOSITION

SUBJEC
T
PREDICAT
E
LOGICAL FORM
WAYS OF REWRITING PROPOSITION TO
ITS LOGICAL FORM
1. Change the verb to its present tense
progressive.
2. Change the verb to a noun.
3. Change verb to a relative clause.
4. Change verb to a noun clause.
EXAMPLE
ALL CROCODILES CANNOT FLY.

1.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYING.
2.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYERS.
3.NO CROCODILES ARE REPTILES
THAT CAN FLY.
4.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYING
REPTILES.
SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
CONTRAR
Y
SUBCONTRA
RY
S
U
B
A
L
T
E
R
N
S
U
B
A
L
T
E
R
N
A E
I O
CONTRADICTORIES
- 2 pairs:
1] A O: Every S is P, therefore, some S is not
P.
O A: Some S is not P, therefore, every S is
P.

2]E I: No S is P, therefore, some S is P.
I E: Some S is P, therefore, no S is P.

EXAMPLES:
A - All men are rational, therefore
O - some men are not rational.

I Some students are girls, therefore
E No students are girls.
RULES:
1. If one is true, the other is false.
2. If one is false, the other is true.

A - All men are rational is true [ T ],
therefore
O - some men are not rational. False
or F

CONTRARY
- 1 pair:
A E: Every S is P, therefore, no S is
P.
or
E A: No S is P, therefore, every S is
P.

Example:
E- No students are girls, therefore,
A - every students are girls.

RULES:
1. If one is true, the other is false.
2. If one is false, the other is doubtful.

Example:
E- No students are girls is false [ F ],
therefore,
A - every students are girls is doubtful
[ ? ]

SUBCONTRARY
- 1 pair
I O: Some S is P, therefore some S is
not P.
or
O I: Some S is not P, therefore some S
is P.
EXAMPLE:
I - Some students are girls, therefore
O - some students are not girls.
RULES:
1. If one is true, the other is doubtful.
2. If one is false, the other is true.

EXAMPLE:
I - Some students are girls is true [ T ],
therefore
O - some students are not girls is doubtful
[ ? ].

SUBALTERNS
- 2 pairs
1. A I: Every S is P, therefore some S is
P.
I A: Some S is P, therefore every S
is P.

2. E O: No S is P, therefore some S is
not P.
O E: Some S is not P, therefore no S
is P.
EXAMPLE
A- All triangles are planes with three
sides, therefore
I- Some triangles are planes with three
sides.
RULES:
1. If the universal is true, the particular is
true; if the universal is false, the particular
is doubtful
A- All triangles are planes with three sides
is true [ T ], therefore
I- Some triangles are planes with three
sides true [ T ].
2. If the particular is true, the
universal is
doubtful; but if the particular is false,
the
universal is false.
I- Some triangles are planes with three
sides is true [ T ]
therefore
A- All triangles are planes with three
sides is
Doubtful [?]