Work and Energy

Product of Vectors
Product of Vectors
We know, how to add and subtract vectors.

Vectors are not ordinary numbers, so ordinary multiplication
is not directly applicable to vectors.

We will define two kinds of product of vectors:
Scalar product: yields a result that is a scalar quantity.
Vector product: yields another vector.

Scalar Product
Scalar product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.
Scalar product can be negative, positive or zero.
It can be expressed in two ways:
In terms of magnitudes of A and B and the angle between
them:


In terms of components of A and B:
u u cos cos B A AB B A

= =
u ranges from 0 to 180
z z y y x x
B A B A B A B A + + =

Scalar Product
Scalar product is:
Positive, when u is between 0 to 90
Negative, when u is between 90 to 180
Zero? The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is always
zero.
Scalar product obeys the communicative law of multiplication: the
order of the two vectors does not matter.


Unit vectors are to each other. Scalar product of unit vectors:

A B B A

= u u cos cos BA AB =
1 0 cos ) 1 )( 1 (


= = = = k k j j i i
0 90 cos ) 1 )( 1 (

= = = = k j k i j i
z z y y x x
B A B A B A B A + + =

Work
Work
Everyday life concept of work: any activity that requires muscular or
mental effort, for example
Push a stalled car off the road
Complete MasteringPhysics homework in time
Physics concept of work:
The total work done on a particle by all forces that act on it
equals the change in its kinetic energy (quantity that is related
to the particles speed even non-constant speed and non-
constant forces; we will learn this later)
The work done by a constant force on an object that is
undergoing a straight line displacement is given by


S F W

=
Work
The work done by a constant force on an object that is undergoing a
straight line displacement is given by


Definition of work is based on observations. You do work by exerting the
force on an object while that object moves from one place to another
(undergoes displacement):
You do more work if the force is greater
You do more work if displacement is greater


S F W

=
Work
SI unit of work is Joule (J) Jewel
1 Joule = (1 Newton) (1 meter); 1 J = 1 Nm

British unit of work is foot-pound (ftlb)
Unit of force is pound, unit of distance is foot
Conversion: 1 J = 0.7376 ftlb, 1 ftlb = 1.356 J


S F W

=
James Joule
1818 - 1889
Work
You push a stalled car through a displacement S with a constant force F
in the direction of motion:

You push a stalled car through a displacement S with a constant force F
at angle u to the direction of motion:

Only component of force in direction of cars displacement is important


S F W =
u cos S F W =
Work and Kinetic Energy
Work and Kinetic Energy
From the definition of work we know that the total work done on an
object is related to its displacement (changes in position).





Work is also related to changes in the speed of the object.


S F W

=
Work and Kinetic Energy
Example: Block sliding on a frictionless table

Forces acting on a block: its weight, normal
force, and the force F exerted by the hand.

Work and Kinetic Energy
Example: Block sliding on a frictionless table

Forces acting on a block: its weight, normal
force, and the force F exerted by the hand.

A. The net force on a block is
in the direction of its
motion. From N2L, this
means that the block
speeds up. W=FS also
tells us that the total work
will be positive.

B. Here only the component
Fcos| contributes to W
total
.
The block speeds up as well.
Work and Kinetic Energy
Example: Block sliding on a frictionless table

Forces acting on a block: its weight, normal
force, and the force F exerted by the hand.

C. The net force here opposes
the displacement. From
N2L, this means that the
block slows down. W=FS
also tells us that the total
work will be negative.

D. Here the net force is zero,
so the speed of the block
stays the same, and W
total

is zero.
Work and Kinetic Energy
When an object undergoes a displacement:
object will "speed up" if W
total
> 0,
object will "slow down" if W
total
< 0,
object will "maintain the same speed (constant) if W
total
= 0.

Work and Kinetic Energy
S a v v
x
+ = 2
2
1
2
2
Consider a particle with mass m moving along the x-axis under the
action of a constant net force with magnitude F directed along the
positive x-axis.
Particle acceleration is constant, and by N2L: F=ma
x
.
Suppose, speed changes from v
1
to v
2
while particle undergoes a
displacement S=x
2
-x
1
from point x
1
to x
2
.
1-D constant-acceleration equation:
S
v v
a
x
2
2
1
2
2

=
S
v v
m ma F
x
2
2
1
2
2

= =
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
mv mv S F =
1 2
x x S =
Work and Kinetic Energy
The product FS is the work done by the net force. Thus, it is equal to the
total work W
total
done by all the forces acting on a particle.

Definition of Kinetic Energy:

Like work, kinetic energy of a particle is a scalar quantity: it depends on
particles mass and speed, not its direction of motion.
Car has the same kinetic energy when going north at 10m/s as
when going east at 10m/s.
Kinetic energy can never be negative; its zero when particle is at rest.
2
2
1
mv K =
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
mv mv S F =
Work - Energy Theorem
Work done by the net force on a particle equals the change in the
particles kinetic energy:

Work - Energy Theorem:
2
2
1
i i
mv K =
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
mv mv S F =
K K K W
tot
A = =
1 2
1 2
K K S F =
When an object moves:
object will "speed up" if W
total
> 0, K
2
> K
1

object will "slow down" if W
total
< 0, K
2
< K
1

object will "maintain the same speed (constant) if W
total
=0,
K
2
=K
1
Speeds and distances must be measured in inertial frame of reference!
Kinetic energy and work have the same units (Joules, or Nm):

2
2
2
1 ) ( 1 1 1
s
m
s
m
kg m kg m N J = = =
Work and Kinetic Energy
IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: The work-energy theorem is extremely
useful in situations where you want to relate a bodys speed at one point in its
motion to its speed at a different point.
This approach is less useful for problems that involve time, such as finding the time
it takes a body to go from point 1 to point 2. The reason is that the work-energy
theorem doesnt involve time at all. For problems that involve time, its usually best
to use the relationships among time, position, velocity, and acceleration we learned
in 1-D motion.

SET UP the problem using the following steps:
1. Choose the initial and final positions of the body, and draw a free-body
diagram showing all the forces that act on the body.
2. Choose a coordinate system. (If the motion is along a straight line, its
usually easiest to have both the initial and final positions lie along the x-
axis.)
3. List the unknown and known quantities, and decide which unknowns are
your target variables. In some cases the target variable will be the
bodys initial or final speed; in other cases it will be the magnitude of
one of the forces acting on the body.
Problem Solving Strategy
Work and Kinetic Energy
EXECUTE: Calculate the work done by each force.
Be sure to check the sign of the work for each force; it must be positive if
the force has a component in the direction of the displacement, negative if
it has a component opposite the displacement, and zero if the force and
displacement are perpendicular.
Add the amounts of work done by each force to find the total work.
Be careful with signs! Sometimes it may be easier to calculate the vector
sum of the forces (the net force), then find the work done by the net force.
Write expressions for the initial and final kinetic energies, K
1
and K
2
.
Note that kinetic energy involves mass, not weight; if you are given the
bodys weight, youll need to find the mass.
Finally, use the relationship W
tot
=K
2
-K
1
to solve for the target variable.
Remember that the right-hand side of this equation is the final kinetic
energy minus the initial kinetic energy, never the other way around.
EVALUATE your answer: Check whether your answer makes physical
sense. A key item to remember is that kinetic energy can never be
negative. If you come up with a negative value of K, youve made a
mistake!

Problem Solving Strategy
Kinetic Energy
The example with the hammerhead gives insight into the physical
meaning of kinetic energy.
The hammerhead was dropped from rest, and its kinetic energy when it
hits the I-beam equals the total work done on it up to that point by the
net force.
To accelerate a particle with mass m from rest (zero kinetic energy) up
to a speed v, the total work done on it must equal the change in kinetic
energy from zero to K=0.5mv
2
:


Kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the total work that was
done to accelerate it from rest to its present speed.
Or from its present speed to rest!
Catch the ball right pull your hand back, increasing distance to stop
the ball: ball does the work on your hand equal to the balls initial
kinetic energy W
tot
=FS=0.5mv
2
.
Pulling hand back, you maximize the distance over which this force acts
and thus minimize the force on your hand.
K K W
tot
= = 0
2
2
1
mv K =
Composite Systems
Man standing on frictionless roller skates on a level
surface, pushes against the rigid wall, setting himself in
motion to the right.
Forces acting on him: his weight W, upward normal
forces n
1
and n
2
exerted by the ground on his skates,
and the horizontal force F exerted on him by the wall.
No vertical displacement, so forces W, n
1
and n
2
do
NO work. Force F exerted on him by the wall is
horizontal force that accelerates him to the right, but his
hands dont move. So this force doesnt do work as well.
Where does the mans kinetic energy come from?
This system is not a single point (or particle)
Various parts of the body interact with each other (here:
his hands are still, but his torso moves)
Total kinetic energy of this composite system of body
parts can change, even no work is done by forces
applied outside the system.

Work and Energy with Varying
Forces
Work and Energy with Varying Forces
We know that work done by a constant force on an object that is
undergoing a straight line displacement is given by


What happens when force exerted on an object is NOT constant
and the object moves in path which is NOT straight?
Example: spring, stretched
More you stretch it, the harder you have to pull: thus the
force is non-constant

Lets consider straight-line motion with non-constant force
One complication at a time!
F
x
change along the x-axis (force depends on position)
S F W

=
Work and Energy with Varying Forces
Particle moves from x
1
to x
2
; F
x
depends on coordinate x.
Lets divide the total displacement by small segments Ax
a
, Ax
b
, Ax
c

Total work done during segment Ax
a
: ~ by the average force F
a
in this
segment multiplied by the displacement Ax
a.
All segments:

A = A + + A + A =
m m f f b b a a
x F x F x F x F W ...
Work and Energy with Varying Forces
If number of segments is very large, segment's width Ax

is very small

In the limit, the sum is integral of F
x
from x
1
to x
2
.
( )
}

= A =
A
2
1
0
lim
x
x
x m m
x
dx F x F W
On a graph of force as function of
position, the total work done by this
force is represented by the area
under the curve between the initial
and final positions.

Varying x-component of force,
straight-line displacement
Work and Energy with Varying Forces
Lets check it: if F
x
is constant from x
1
to x
2
.:
S F x x F dx F dx F W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
= = = =
} }
) (
1 2
2
1
2
1
Hookes Law
To keep ideal spring stretched by amount x beyond its initial length,
we need to apply on the end the force which is proportional to x:
x k F
x
=
Force required to stretch a spring
K spring (force) constant, [N/m]
Example: Force constant k
Floppy toy spring: k=1 N/m Car suspension spring: k=10
5
N/m
Robert Hooke
1635 1703
... lean, bent and ugly man ...
Hookes Law
To stretch a spring, you must do work
Suppose one end of a spring is fixed, you apply force on another end
That end moves, so the force does work
Work done by the force when spring elongation goes from zero to X:
2
0 0
2
1
kX kxdx dx F W
X X
x
} }
= = =
kX X W =
2
1
Total work is ~ to square of final
elongation
Graph, Area under the curve:

If spring was initially already stretched a
distance x
1
, the work to stretch it to a
greater elongation x
2
:
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
kx kx kxdx dx F W
x
x
x
x
x
= = =
} }
What happens if you
compress the spring?
Hookes Law
Compression:
Force F
x
and displacement x are both negative

Force is in the same direction as displacement: work is positive
Example is following
What happens if you compress the spring?
x
F
x x
Varying Forces: Work - Energy
Theorem
} } }
= = =
2
1
2
1
2
1
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x tot
dx
dx
dv
mv dx ma dx F W
One can use the same approach: divide total displacement into segments
Apply Work-Energy Theorem for each segment: W
a
=AK
a
=F
a
Ax
a
Sum the changes to find W
tot
Another way:


Chain rule for derivatives



(dv
x
/dx)dx is the change in velocity dv
x
during displacement dx. Thus:



Work Energy Theorem is the same: valid for varying forces as well !
dt
dx
v
dt
dv
a
x
x
x
= = ,
dx
dv
v
dt
dx
dx
dv
dt
dv
a
x
x
x x
x
= = =
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1 2
1
mv mv dv mv W
x
x
x x tot
= =
}
Curved Path: Work - Energy Theorem
Force that varies in direction and magnitude
Displacement lies along a curved path: particle moves from P
1
to P
2

} } }
= = =
2
1
2
1
2
1
cos
P
P
P
P
P
P
d F d F d F W

|
Divide curve between P
1
and P
2
into small vector displacements d.
Each d is a tangent to the path at its position.
F is the force at a point along the path, | is the angle between F and d.
Small element of work W done on particle during displacement d :
Total work done on a particle then:

d F d F d F dW = = = | cos
(Work done on a curved path)
Power
Power man
Mr. Olympia
Watts
Engine
Power
You lift weight 100N vertically at a distance 1m at constant velocity:
You do (100N)(1m)=100J of work whether it takes 1 sec, 1 hour, 1
year
You want to know how quickly the work is done

Power is the time rate at which work is done. Power is a scalar.


Average power:


Instantaneous power:

Definition of work makes no reference to the passage of time
t
W
P
av
A
A
=
dt
dW
t
W
P
t
=
A
A
=
A 0
lim
Power
The SI unit of power is watt (W), 1 W = 1 Joule per 1 second.
In the British system of units power is in ftlb/sec or in a larger unit
called horsepower (hp).
1 hp = 550 ftlb/sec = 33,000 ftlb/min = 746 W = of kilowatt (kW)
The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of electrical energy, not power
energy = power time
av av
v F
t
S
F
t
S F
t
W
P =
A
A
=
A
A
=
A
A
=
v F
dt
dW
t
W
P
t
= =
A
A
=
A 0
lim
v F P =
In terms of scalar product
In mechanics, power is expressed
in terms of force and velocity
James Watt
1736 1819
Watt's steam engines
Started with nothing, died
as a very wealthy man
James Watt
Watt discovered how he could make the steam engine more efficient.
Steam engine that cooled the used steam in a condenser separate from main cylinder.
In 1755 Watt had been granted a patent by Parliament that prevented
anybody else from making a steam-engine like the one he had developed.
For next 25 years, the Boulton & Watt company had a virtual monopoly over
the production of steam-engines. These machines were mainly sold to colliery
owners who used them to pump water from their mines, and textile factories.
Watt charged his customers a premium for using his steam engines.
To justify this he compared his machine to a horse. Watt calculated that a horse
exerted a pull of 180 lb., therefore, when he made a machine, he described its power
in relation to a horse, i.e. "a 20 horse-power engine".
Watt worked out how much each company saved
by using his machine rather than a team of
horses. The company then had to pay him one
third of this figure every year, for the next
twenty-five years. When James Watt died in 1819
he was a very wealthy man.
Watts Steam Engine
This Watt Rotation Engine is housed in the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, MI